OF  THE, 

U N I VLR.S  ITY 
Of  ILLINOIS 

523 

D55c 

1848 

remotb  stokAGI 


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CELESTIAL  SCENERY. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/celestialscenery00dick_0 


te©mas  desk,  il.il, p° 

author  0/V.KE  aBWH  «“s«m>c-fa- 


T'aigravei'by  U.Cook. 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY: 

OR, 

2®Sonfcm 

OF 

THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM  DISPLAYED; 

ILLUSTRATING 

THE  PERFECTIONS  OF  THE  DEITY 

AND  A PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS. 


BY 


THOMAS  DICK,  LL.D. 

AUTHOR  OF  “ THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER,”  “ PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION,” 
“ PHILOSOPHY  OF^  A FUTURE  STATE,” 

“ IMPROVEMENT  OF  SOCIETY,”  “ MENTAL  ILLUMINATION,” 

ETC.  ETC. 


SEVENTH  THOUSAND. 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX,  CONTAINING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF 
RECENT  DISCOVERIES. 


LONDON: 

WARD  AND  CO.,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


sz.'i 

DS'S'c. 
I % 


PREFACE. 


The  following  work  is  intended  for  the  instruction  of  general 
readers,  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  study  of  the  heavens, 
and  to  present  to  their  view  sublime  objects  of  contemplation. 
With  this  view,  the  Author  has  avoided  entering  on  the  more 
abstruse  and  recondite  portions  of  astronomical  science,  and  con- 
fined his  attention  chiefly  to  the  exhibition  of  facts , the  founda- 
tion on  which  they  rest,  and  the  reasonings  by  which  they  are 
supported.  All  the  prominent  facts  and  discoveries  connected 
with  descriptive  astronomy,  i&  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the 
planetary  system,  are  here  recorded,  and  many  of  them  exhi- 
bited in  a new  point  of  view;  and  several  new  facts  and  obser- 
vations are  detailed  which  have  hitherto  been  either  unnoticed 
or  unrecorded. 

The  results  of  hundreds  of  tedious  calculations  have  been  in- 
troduced respecting  the  solid  and  superficial  contents  of  the 
different  planets,  their  satellites,  and  the  rings  of  Saturn, — their 
comparative  magnitudes  and  motions,  the  extent  of  their  orbits, 
the  apparent  magnitudes  of  bodies  in  their  respective  firma* 
ments,  and  many  other  particulars  not  contained  in  books  of 
astronomy,  in  order  to  produce  in  the  minds  of  common  readers 


VI 


PREFACE. 


definite  conceptions  of  the  magnitude  and  grandeur  of  the  solar 
system.  The  mode  of  determining  the  distances  and  magnitudes 
of  the  celestial  bodies  is  explained,  and  rendered  as  perspicuous 
and  popular  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  will  admit;  and  the 
prominent  arguments  which  demonstrate  a plurality  of  worlds 
are  considered  in  all  their  bearings,  and  illustrated  in  detail. 

One  new  department  of  astronomical  science,  which  has 
hitherto  been  overlooked,  has  been  introduced  into  this  volume 
— namely,  the  scenery  of  the  heavens  as  exhibited  from  the  sur- 
faces of  the  different  planets  and  their  satellites , which  forms  an 
interesting  object  of  contemplation,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a 
presumptive  argument  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  a plurality 
of  worlds. 

The  Author  having  for  many  years  past  been  a pretty  con- 
stant observer  of  celestial  phenomena,  was  under  no  necessity 
of  adhering  implicitly  to  the  descriptions  given  by  preceding 
writers,  having  had  an  opportunity  of  observing,  through  some 
of  the  best  reflecting  and  achromatic  telescopes,  the  greater  part 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  solar  system  which  are  here  described. 

Throughout  the  volume  he  has  endeavoured  to  make  the  facts 
he  describes  bear  upon  the  illustration  of  the  Power,  Wisdom, 
Benevolence,  and  the  Moral  government  of  the  Almighty,  and 
to  elevate  the  views  of  the  reader  to  the  contemplation  of  Him 
who  sits  on  the  throne  of  the  universe,  “ by  whom  the  worlds 
were  framed,”  and  who  is  the  Source  and  the  Centre  of  all 
felicity. 

In  prosecuting  the  subject  of  Celestial  Scenery,  the  Author 
intends,  in  another  volume,  to  carry  forward  his  survey 
to  the  Starry  Heavens,  and  other  objects  connected  with 
astronomy.  That  volume  will  embrace  discussions  relative  to 
the  number,  distance,  and  arrangement  of  the  stars — periodical 
and  variable  stars — new  and  temporary  stars — double  and  triple 


PREFACE. 


vii 

stars  — binary  systems — stellar  and  planetary  nebulas — the 
comets,  and  other  particulars — accompanied  with  such  reflections 
as  the  contemplation  of  such  august  objects  may  suggest.  The 
subject  of  a plurality  of  worlds  will  likewise  be  prosecuted,  and 
additional  arguments,  derived  both  from  reason  and  revelation, 
will  be  adduced  in  support  of  this  position.  The  practical  utility 
of  astronomical  studies,  their  connexion  with  religion,  and  the 
views  they  unfold  of  the  perfections  and  the  empire  of  the 
Creator,  will  also  be  the  subject  of  consideration.  And  should 
the  limits  of  a single  volume  permit,  some  hints  may  be  given 
in  relation  to  the  desiderata  in  astronomy,  and  the  means  by 
which  the  progress  of  the  science  may  be  promoted,  together 
with  descriptions  of  the  telescope,  the  equatorial  and  other  in- 
struments, and  the  manner  of  using  them  for  celestial  investi- 
gations. 


Broughty  Ferry , near  Dundee , 
December , 1837. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO 

THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 


The  present  edition  has  been  carefully  revised  and  improved, 
and  some  inaccuracies,  which  had  crept  into  the  former  editions, 
corrected.  As  several  discoveries,  in  relation  to  the  Solar 
System  and  other  celestial  objects,  have  been  made  since  the  last 
edition  was  published,  a particular  account  of  them  is  given  in 
the  Appendix , which  contains  details  of  all  that  is  presently 
known  respecting  the  primary  and  secondary  planets  of  our 
system ; together  with  a particular  account  of  the  Earl  of  Rosse’s 
Great  Telescopes,  and  some  of  the  discoveries  they  have  brought 
to  light;  as  also  an  account  of  the  Great  Achromatic  Telescope 
lately  fitted  up  in  Cambridge,  State  of  Massachusetts,  and 
several  of  the  observations  which  have  been  made  with  it;  and 
likewise  an  Account  of  the  Cincinnati  Telescope,  and  various 
other  particulars. 


Broughty  Ferry , near  Dundee , 
October , 1848. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction. — Objects  and  sublimity  of  the  science  of  astronomy — 
Ignorance  of  former  ages  on  this  subject — Modern  discoveries — Objects 
of  this  work page  1 — 5 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  AND  APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  THE 
STARRY  HEAVENS. 


Ignorance  of  the  bulk  of  mankind  in  regard  to  the  apparent  motions  of  the 
heavens — Deficiencies  in  our  modes  of  education — Innate  curiosity  of  the 
young — Apparent  motions  and  phenomena  of  the  nocturnal  heavens — 
How  to  find  the  pole-star — Descriptions  of  Ursa  Major  and  Minor — 
Situations  of  some  of  the  principal  stars — Appearance  of  the  firmament 
in  southern  latitudes — Magnificence  of  the  starry  heavens — Proofs  of 
the  earth’s  rotation — Utility  of  the  stars — Measures  of  the  celestial  sphere 

6 — 30 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE  GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 

Ptolemaic  system,  its  complexity  and  futility — Copernicus — System  of 
Copernicus — Its  important  bearings — Arguments  to  prove  the  truth  of 
this  system,  and  of  the  earth’s  annual  motion,  illustrated  at  large , 53 — 70 

Motion  of  the  earth  a sublime  object  of  contemplation  31 — 51 


CHAPTER  IIL 


ON  THE  MAGNITUDES,  MOTIONS,  AND  OTHER  PHENOMENA  OF  THE 
PRIMARY  PLANETS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

1.  The  Planet  Mercury. 

Its  period — Elongations — Transits— Mountains — Intensity  of  light — Tempe- 
rature— Magnitude  and  population — Rate  of  motion — Mass  and  density — 
Eccentricity  of  orbit,  &c 51 — 59 


X 


CONTENTS. 


2.  The  Planet  Venus . 

Form  of  the  Planetary  orbits — Explanation  of  astronomical  terms — General 
appearance,  phases,  and  apparent  motions  of  Venus — May  he  seen  at  its 
superior  conjunction — Observations  on,  in  the  day-time — Discoveries  on, 
by  the  telescope — Views  of,  by  Cassini,  Bianchini,  Maraldi,  Schroeter, 
and  others — Its  mountains  and  atmosphere — Its  supposed  satellite — Its 
transits — Extent  of  surface — Quantity  of  light — Temperature — Distance 
— Rate  of  motion,  density,  &c 59 — 89 

3.  The  Earth , considered  as  a Planet. 

Its  spheroidal  figure,  and  how  ascertained — General  aspect  of  its  surface — 
Appearance  if  viewed  from  the  moon — Its  internal  structure  and  density 
— Its  variety  of  seasons — General  reflections  on — its  tropical  and  sidereal 
year,  and  various  other  particulars  ...  89 — 108 

4.  The  Planet  Mars. 

Peculiar  phenomena  of  the  superior  planets — Conjunctions,  oppositions,  and 
phases  of  Mars — distance,  motion,  apparent  diameter,  and  extent  of  its 
orbit — Telescopic  views  of  its  surface — Its  atmosphere — Conclusions 
respecting  its  physical  constitution — Its  superficial  contents — Proportion 
of  light — Whether  it  have  a secondary  attendant,  &c.  ...  108 — 124 

5.  The  Planets  Vesta , Juno , Ceres , and  Pallas. 

History  of  their  discovery — Notice  of  Dr.  Oibers — Magnitude,  distances, 
periods,  and  other  phenomena  of  these  planets — their  peculiarities — Incli- 
nation and  eccentricity  of  orbits,  &c.  &c. — Conclusions  respecting  the  nature 
of  these  planets — Remarks  in  reference  to  the  Divine  government — Meteoric 
phenomena — Details  of  meteoric  showers,  with  remarks — Moral  reflec- 
tions, &c 124 — 149 


6.  The  Planet  Jupiter. 

Its  distance — Diurnal  rotation — Centrifugal  force — Density — Magnitude, 
and  capacity  for  population — Discoveries  made  on  its  surface  by  means  of 
the  telescope — Its  belts,  their  changes  and  general  phenomena — Opinions 
respecting  their  nature — Its  permanent  spots — Its  peculiar  splendour — Its 
seasons,  atmosphere,  proportion  of  light,  spheroidal  figure,  arc  of  retro- 
gradation,  & c 149 — 163 


7.  The  Planet  Saturn. 

Its  distance — Period  of  revolution  and  proportion  of  light — Discoveries  on 
its  surface  by  means  of  the  telescope — Magnitude  and  extent — Its  density 
—Gravitating  power  of  the  planets,  &c.  &c 163 — 169 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


8.  Rings  of  Saturn. 


History  of  their  discovery — Their  Dimensions — Rotation — Are  eccentric — 
Their  superficial  contents  and  vast  extent  illustrated — Display  the 
grandeur  of  the  Creator — Their  appearance  from  the  surface  of  Saturn 
— Their  diversified  phenomena — Firmament  of  Saturn  described — Uses 
of  the  rings — Different  aspects  of  the  rings  as  viewed  through  telescopes 

169—188 


9.  The  Planet  Uranus. 

History  of  its  discovery — Its  distance — Circumference  of  its  orbit — Its 
period  of  revolution — Its  magnitude  and  dimensions — Its  proportion  of 
light — Its  temperature — Nature  of  caloric,  &c.  ...  ...  188 — 196 

Whether  any  other  planets  exist  within  the  limits  of  our  system  and  how 
they  may  be  discovered  ...  ...  ...  196 — 198 


10.  The  Sun. 

Its  apparent  diurnal  motion  as  viewed  from  different  positions  on  the  globe — 
Its  annual  motion — Its  distance — Its  magnitude  particularly  illustrated, 
with  reflections — Its  rotation — Phenomena  of  its  spots  particularly 
described — Their  variety  and  changes — Opioions  respecting  them — 
Deductions  respecting  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the  sun — Amazing 
operations  going  forward  on  its  surface — The  extent  of  its  surface 
compared  with  the  view  from  Mount  Etna — Displays  the  grandeur  of  the 
Deity — Whether  it  be  inhabited — Its  beneficial  influence  on  our  globe — 
Its  effect  on  the  weather— Its  motion  in  space — Zodiacal  light  199 — 225 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  SECONDARY  PLANETS. 

1.  The  Moon  — Its  apparent  motions  and  phases — Rotation — Opacity — 

Distance — Variety  of  mountains — Caverns — Volcanoes — Telescopic  views 
of — Atmosphere — Magnitude — Inhabitants — Pretended  discoveries  on — 
Beneficial  influence,  &c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  226 — 257 

2.  Satellites  of  Jupiter — Their  discovery — Revolutions — Eclipses — Magni- 
tudes— Diversity  of  phenomena — Longitude — Motion  of  light  257 — 265 

3.  Satellites  of  Saturn  — History  of  their  discovery — Revolutions  and 

assumed  magnitudes — Appearance  from  Saturn  265 — 269 

4.  Satellites  of  Uranus  — Their  motions — Distances — Assumed  magnitudes 

and  peculiarities 269 — 271 


Xll 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  PERFECTIONS  OF  THE  DEITY  AS  DISPLAYED  IN  THE 
PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 

Grand  objects  of  astronomy — Omnipotence  of  the  Deity — Displayed  in  the 
magnitudes  and  motions  of  the  sun  and  planets — His  wisdom  illustrated  in 
various  particulars — His  boundless  beneficence  271—284 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 

Superficies,  solidity,  comparative  magnitudes  and  distances  of  the  sun,  earth, 
planets,  satellites,  and  rings  of  Saturn  284 — 290 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  THE  METHOD  BY  WHICH  THE  DISTANCES  AND  MAGNITUDES  OF  THE 
HEAVENLY  BODIES  ARE  DETERMINED. 

Popular  methods  illustrated — Law  of  Shadows — Eclipses — Trigonometrical 
definitions — Parallaxes — Triangles — Mode  of  calculating  the  distance  and 
diameter  of  the  moon — General  remarks  290 — 308 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ON  THE  SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS  AS  VIEWED  FROM  THE  SURFACES  OF 
THE  DIFFERENT  PLANETS  AND  THEIR  SATELLITES. 


General  remarks  on  celestial  scenery—  Scenery  of  the  heavens  from  Mercury 
— Venus — Mars — The  new  planets — Jupiter*— Saturn — Uranus — Rings  of 
Saturn — Celestial  scenery  of  the  moon — Appearance  of  the  earth  from — 
Lunar  astronomy — Scenery  from  the  satellites  of  Jupiter — Of  Saturn — 
And  of  Uranus — Various  views  of  these  scenes — General  observations 

308—341 


CHAPTER  IX. 


ON  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  A PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS,  WITH  AN  ILLUSTRATION 
OF  SOME  OF  THE  ARGUMENTS  BY  WHICH  IT  MAY  BE  SUPPORTED. 


Sect.  I.  First  argument  illustrated  

II.  Second  argument 

III.  Third  argument  ... 

Application  of  the  preceding  arguments 

IV.  Fourth  argument 

V.  Fifth  argument 

Summary — concluding  reflections 


342—346 

346—353 

353—359 

359—364 

364—366 

366—373 

373—375 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


APPENDIX. 


NEW  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


The  planet  Neptune — History  of  its  discovery — Its  bulk,  distance,  and 
magnitude — Its  supposed  Ring — Its  satellite — Reflections  suggested 
by  the  manner  in  which  this  planet  was  discovered — Law  of  gravita- 
tion, &c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  376 — 381 

The  planet  Astrcea,  discovered  by  Mr.  Hencke  ...  ...  ...  381 

The  planet  Hebe — Its  discovery,  period,  and  position  ...  383 

The  planet  Iris  discovered  by  Mr.  Hind — Manner  in  which  it  was 
discovered — Its  position  in  the  heavens  ...  ...  ...  ...  383 

The  planet  Flora — Account  of  its  discovery  by  Mr.  Hind,  &c.  ...  384 

Professor  Kaiser's  Planet..,  ...  ...  ...  ...  385 

Remarks  on  the  small  planets  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  385 

On  the  rapid  progress  of  Astronomical  Discovery  ...  ...  ...  387 

Number  of  planets,  primary  and  secondary,  which  have  been  dis- 
covered since  the  year  1600 — Our  views  of  the  planetary  system 
not  yet  complete — Further  discoveries  may  be  expected — Neptune 
seen  by  Lalande  in  1795,  p.  388 — American  astronomers  and  instru- 
ments— Description  of  the  Great  Achromatic  Telescope,  at  Cam- 
bridge, New  England — Observations  which  have  been  made  with  it 


388—390 

Description  of  Lord  Rosse’s  Reflecting  Telescopes  ...  390 

Account  of  his  Lordship’s  mansion,  workshops,  &c. — Description  of 
his  27-feet  Reflector,  393 — Description  of  his  52-feet  Telescope, 

6 feet  in  diameter,  395 — Its  composition,  casting,  polishing,  &c. — 
Representation  of,  and  manner  of  using  it,  393 — Discoveries  which 
have  been  made  by  it  among  the  Nebulae,  397 — Character  of  his 
Lordship,  and  of  his  Lady  the  Countess  of  Rosse 398 

Le  Verrier’s  Planet  399 

Description  of  the  Cincinnati  Telescope  400 

Discovery  of  the  Eighth  Satellite  of  Saturn  400 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


FIGURE 

1.  Ursa  Major,  Ursa  Minor,  and  the  pole  star  

2.  Ursa  Major  in  a different  position 

3.  above  the  pole  star  

4.  Ursa  Minor  in  four  different  positions  with  respect  to  the  pole  ... 

5.  Representation  of  the  solar  system 

6.  Diagram  illustrating  the  conjunction  of  Mercury  and  Venus 

7.  Diagram  exhibiting  the  apparent  motion  of  Mercury  as  seen  from 

the  earth 

8.  Comparative  view  of  the  apparent  hulk  of  the  sun  as  viewed  from 

Mercury  and  from  the  earth 

9.  Figure  of  the  planetary  orbits  

10.  Diagram  illustrating  the  inclination  of  the  planetary  orbits  to  the 

plane  of  the  ecliptic  

11.  Illustration  of  the  superior  and  inferior  conjunctions  of  Venus  ... 

12.  Figure  illustrative  of  the  phases  of  Venus  ... 

13.  14.  Mode  of  viewing  Venus  at  its  superior  conjunction 

15—  18.  Four  telescopic  views  of  Venus  by  Cassini  ... 

19.  Telescopic  view  of  Venus  by  Bianchini  

20,21.  Views  of  Venus  by  Schroeter  

22.  Nos.  1 and  2.  View  of  Venus  by  the  Author  

22.  No.  3.  View  illustrating  Montaigne’s  observations  on  the  sup- 

posed satellite  of  Venus 

23.  Figures  illustrating  the  transit  of  Venus  

24.  Comparative  size  of  the  sun  as  viewed  from  Venus  and  from  the 

earth  

25.  26.  Two  views  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  moon  

27,  28.  Diagram  illustrative  of  the  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis  to 

the  plane  of  the  ecliptic 

29.  Representation  of  the  seasons  ...  ...  

30.  Figure  representing  the  obliquity  of  the  sun’s  rays  

31.  Figure  illustrative  of  the  relation  of  the  earth  and  Mars 

32.  Figure  illustrative  of  the  relation  of  the  earth  and  Saturn 


PAGE 

11 

13 

14 

15 
38 
43 

48 

55 

61 

63 

65 

67 

72 

74 

75 
77 
79 

82 

85 

87 

97 

101 

102 

104 

109 

109 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS.  XV 

FIGURE  PAGE 

33.  Figure  representing  the  phase  of  Mars  109 

34.  Diagram  explanatory  of  the  apparent  motions  of  Mars  and  of  the 

superior  planets Ill 


36.  Two  telescopic 

views  of  Mars,  by  Cassini 

116 

38.  Ditto 

ditto 

by  Maraldi 

116 

40.  Ditto 

ditto 

by  Hook 

117 

42.  Ditto 

ditto 

by  Herschel 

117 

44.  Ditto 

ditto 

by  the  Author 

118 

Proportional  diameter  of  the  sun, 

as  seen  from  the  earth  and  from 

Mars  123 

46.  Diagram  representing  the  inclination  of  the  orbits  of  Vesta,  Juno, 

Ceres,  and  Pallas  133 

47.  Diagram  representing  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of  Pallas  ...  134 

48.  Diagram  representing  the  crossing  of  the  orbits  of  Ceres  and 

Pallas  136 

49 — 54.  Six  views  of  Jupiter  and  its  belts  154 

55.  Apparent  size  of  the  sun  from  Jupiter  161 

56.  Jupiter  and  its  satellites  as  seen  with  a telescope 163 

57.  Proportional  size  of  the  sun  at  Saturn  ...  ...  ...  ...  165 

58.  View  of  Saturn’s  rings,  and  their  proportions  as  they  would  appear 

when  perpendicular  to  our  line  of  vision  ...  ...  ...  171 

59.  View  of  the  rings  and  firmament  of  Saturn  as  near  its  equator  180 

60.  No.  1.  View  of  the  rings  and  firmament  of  Saturn  as  seen  from 

near  its  polar  regions  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  180 

60 — 65.  Six  views  of  the  apparent  aspects  of  Saturn  and  its  rings  from 


1832  to  1840  187 

66.  Proportional  size  of  the  sun  from  Uranus 194 

67.  Diagram  representing  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun  ...  ...  199 

68.  View  of  the  solar  spots  as  seen  in  November,  1835  208 

69 — 76.  Various  views  of  the  figures  and  phenomena  of  the  solar  spots  208 

69.  View  of  the  appearance  of  the  Zodiacal  light  ...  ...  ...  224 

[This  figure  should  have  been  numbered  77.  After  No.  69,  the 
figures  are  numbered  in  regular  order,  70,  71,  &c.,  to  the 
end,  except  No.  81. 

70.  View  of  the  phases  of  the  moon  228 

71.  View  of  the  jagged  edge  of  the  moon  when  in  a crescent  phase  *•*  238 

72 — 74.  Various  views  of  the  lunar  mountains  and  cavities  ...  ...  238 

75.  Representation  of  the  full  moon  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  239 

76,  77.  General  views  of  portions  of  the  disk  of  the  moon  ...  242,  243 

78.  The  system  of  Jupiter’s  satellites  260 

79 — 81.  Apparent  motions  of  the  satellites  ...  ...  ...  ...  260 

81*  Illustration  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  moons,  and  the  motion  of 

light 


e»  c 


264 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


FIGURE 

82.  Comparative  magnitudes  of  the  planets  and  satellites 

83.  Comparative  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun 

84.  Proportional  magnitude  of  the  earth  to  the  rings  of  Saturn 

85.  Proportional  magnitude  of  Jupiter  to  the  sun  

86.  Figure  illustrative  of  the  distance  of  the  sun  

87 — 90.  Figures  illustrative  of  eclipses,  and  of  the  law  of  shadows  ... 

91 — 95.  Explanatory  of  angles  and  triangles  

96,  97.  Illustrating  the  doctrine  of  parallaxes 

98,  99.  Mode  of  measuring  heights  and  distances  

100,  101.  Method  of  measuring  the  moon’s  distance  and  diameter  ... 

102.  View  of  the  firmament  as  it  appears  from  one  of  the  satellites  of 

Jupiter  

103.  Firmament  as  it  appears  from  the  2nd  sat.  of  Saturn  

104.  Firmament  as  viewed  from  the  7 th  sat.  of  Saturn  

105.  Firmament  as  viewed  from  the  rings  of  Saturn 


View  of  Parsonstown  Castle  

Lord  Rosse’s  three  feet  Reflector 

Great  Telescope  ... 


PAGE 

287 

287 

290 

290 

292 

294 

297 

297 

303 

303 

331 

335 

336 

339 

391 

394 

396 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY, 


ETC. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Astronomy  is  that  department  of  knowledge  which  has  for  its 
object  to  investigate  the  motions,  the  magnitudes,  and  distances 
of  the  heavenly  bodies — the  laws  by  which  their  movements 
are  directed,  and  the  ends  they  are  intended  to  subserve  in  the 
, fabric  of  the  universe.  This  is  a science  which  has,  in  all  ages, 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  poet,  the  philosopher,  and  the 
divine,  and  been  the  subject  of  their  study  and  admiration. 
Kings  have  descended  from  their  thrones  to  render  it  homage, 
and  have  sometimes  enriched  it  with  their  labours ; and  humble 
shepherds,  while  watching  their  flocks  by  night,  have  beheld 
with  rapture  the  blue  vault  of  heaven,  with  its  thousand  shining 
orbs,  moving  in  silent  grandeur,  till  the  morning  star  announced 
the  approach  of  day.  The  study  of  this  science  must  have  been 
coeval  with  the  existence  of  man  ; for  there  is  no  rational  being 
who  has  for  the  first  time  lifted  his  eyes  to  the  nocturnal  sky, 
and  beheld  the  moon  walking  in  brightness,  amidst  the  planetary 
orbs  and  the  host  of  stars,  but  must  have  been  struck  with  ad- 
miration and  wonder  at  the  splendid  scene,  and  excited  to  in- 
quiries into  the  nature  and  destination  of  those  far-distant  orbs. 
Compared  with  the  splendour,  the  amplitude,  the  august  motions, 
and  the  ideas  of  infinity,  which  the  celestial  vault  presents,  the 
most  resplendent  terrestrial  scenes  sink  into  inanity,  and  appear 
unworthy  of  being  set  in  competition  with  the  glories  of  the  sky. 

When,  on  a clear  autumnal  evening,  after  sunset,  we  take  a 
serious  and  attentive  view  of  the  celestial  canopy — when  we 
behold  the  moon  displaying  her  brilliant  crescent  in  the  western 

B 


2 


INTRODUCTION. 


sky — the  evening  star  gilding  the  shades  of  night — the  planets 
moving  in  their  several  orbs  — the  stars,  one  after  another, 
emerging  from  the  blue  ethereal,  and  gradually  lighting  up  the 
firmament  till  it  appear  all  over  spangled  with  a brilliant  assem- 
blage of  shining  orbs — and  particularly,  when  we  behold  one 
cluster  of  stars  gradually  descending  below  the  western  horizon, 
and  other  clusters  emerging  from  the  east , and  ascending,  in 
unison,  the  canopy  of  heaven — when  we  contemplate  the  whole 
celestial  vault,  with  all  the  shining  orbs  it  contains,  moving  in 
silent  grandeur,  like  one  vast  concave  sphere,  around  this  lower 
world  and  the  place  on  which  we  stand — such  a scene  naturally 
leads  a reflecting  mind  to  such  inquiries  as  these:  — Whence 
come  those  stars  which  are  ascending  from  the  east  ? Whither 
have  those  gone  which  have  disappeared  in  the  west?  What 
becomes  of  the  stars,  during  the  day,  which  are  seen  in  the 
night?  Is  the  motion  which  appears  in  the  celestial  vault  real , 
or  does  a motion  in  the  earth  itself  cause  this  appearance  ? 
•What  are  those  immense  numbers  of  shining  orbs  which  appear 
in  every  part  of  the  sky  ? Are  they  mere  studs  or  tapers  fixed 
in  the  arch  of  heaven,  or  are  they  bodies  of  immense  size  and 
splendour  ? Do  they  shine  with  borrowed  light,  or  with  their 
own  native  lustre?  Are  they  placed  only  a few  miles  above 
the  region  of  the  clouds,  or  at  immense  distances,  beyond  the 
range  of  human  comprehension  ? Can  their  distance  be  ascer- 
tained ? Can  their  bulk  be  computed  ? By  what  laws  are 
their  motions  regulated  ? and  what  purposes  are  they  destined 
to  subserve  in  the  great  plan  of  the  universe?  These,  and 
similar  questions,  it  is  the  great  object  of  astronomy  to  resolve, 
in  so  far  as  the  human  mind  has  been  enabled  to  prosecute  the 
path  of  discovery. 

For  a long  period,  during  the  infancy  of  science,  comparatively 
little  was  known  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  excepting  their  apparent 
motions  and  aspects.  Instead  of  investigating  with  care  their 
true  motions,  and  relative  distances  and  magnitudes,  many  of 
our  ancestors  looked  up  to  the  sky  either  with  a brute  uncon- 
scious gaze,  or  viewed  the  heavens  as  the  Book  of  Fate,  in 
which  they  might  read  their  future  fortunes,  and  learn,  from 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac  and  the  conjunctions  and  other  aspects 
of  the  planets,  the  temperaments  and  destinies  of  men,  and  the 
fate  of  empires.  And,  even  to  this  day,  in  many  countries,  the 
fallacious  art  of  prognosticating  fortunes  by  the  stars  is  one  of 
the  chief  uses  to  which  the  science  of  the  heavens  is  applied. 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 

In  the  ages  to  which  I allude,  the  world  in  which  we  dwell  was 
considered  as  the  largest  body  in  the  universe.  It  was  supposed 
to  be  an  immense  plane,  diversified  with  a few  inequalities,  and 
stretching  in  every  direction  to  an  indefinite  extent.  How  the 
sun  penetrated  or  surmounted  this  immense  mass  of  matter 
every  morning,  and  what  became  of  him  in  the  evening — 
whether,  as  the  poets  assert,  he  extinguished  himself  in  the 
western  ocean,  and  was  again  lighted  up  in  the  eastern  sky  in 
the  morning — many  of  them  could  not  determine.  Below  this 
mass  of  matter  we  call  the  earth,  it  was  conceived  that  nothing 
but  darkness  and  empty  space,  or  the  regions  of  Tartarus,  could 
exist.  The  stars,  which  gild  the  concave  of  the  firmament 
above , were  considered  only  as  so  many  bright  studs,  fixed  in  a 
crystaline  sphere,  which  carried  them  round  every  day  to  emit 
a few  glimmering  rays,  and  to  adorn  the  ceiling  of  our  terrestrial 
habitation.  Above  the  visible  firmament  of  heaven,  and  far 
beyond  the  ken  of  mortal  eye,  the  Deity  was  supposed  to  have 
fixed  his  residence,  among  myriads  of  superior  intelligences. 
The  happiness,  the  preservation,  and  the  moral  government  of 
the  human  race,  were  supposed  to  have  been  the  chief  business 
and  object  of  the  Deity,  to  which  all  his  decrees  in  eternity 
past,  and  all  his  arrangements  in  relation  to  eternity  to  come, 
had  a special,  and  almost  exclusive,  reference.  Such  ideas  are 
still  to  be  found,  even  in  the  writings  of  Christian  divines,  at  a 
period  no  farther  back  than  the  sixteenth  century. 

To  have  hazarded  the  opinion,  that  the  plans  of  the  Almighty 
embraced  a much  more  extensive  range — that  other  beings, 
analogous  to  men,  inhabited  the  planetary  or  the  starry  orbs, 
and  that  such  beings  form  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  universe — would  have  been  considered  as  a heresy  in 
religion,  and  would  probably  have  subjected  some  of  those  who 
embraced  it  to  the  anathemas  of  the  church — as  happened  to 
Spigelius,  Bishop  of  Upsal,  for  defending  the  doctrine  of  the 
antipodes,  and  to  Galileo,  the  philosopher  of  Tuscany,  for  assert- 
ing the  motion  of  the  earth.  The  ignorance,  the  intolerance, 
and  the  contracted  views  to  which  I allude,  are,  however,  now 
in  a great  measure  dissipated.  The  light  of  science  has  arisen, 
and  shed  its  benign  influence  on  the  world.  It  has  dispelled 
the  darkness  of  former  ages,  extended  our  prospects  of  the 
grandeur  and  magnificence  of  the  scene  of  creation,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  the  discoveries  of  revelation,  has  opened  new 
views  of  the  perfections  and  moral  government  of  the  Almighty. 


4 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  the  progress  of  astronomical  science,  the  distances  and  mag- 
nitudes of  many  of  the  celestial  bodies  began  to  be  pretty  nearly 
ascertained ; and  the  invention  of  the  telescope  enabled  the 
astronomer  to  extend  his  views  into  regions  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  unassisted  eye,  and  to  discover  myriads  of  magnifi- 
cent globes  formerly  hid  in  the  unexplored  regions  of  immensity. 
The  planetary  orbs  were  found  to  bear  a certain  resemblance  to 
the  earth,  having  spots  and  dark  streaks  of  different  shades  upon 
their  surfaces;  and  it  was  not  long  in  being  discovered,  that, 
notwithstanding  their  apparent  brilliancy,  they  are,  in  reality, 
opaque  globes,  which  derive  all  their  light  and  lustre  from  the 
sun.  The  planet  Venus,  in  different  parts  of  its  orbit,  was 
observed  to  exhibit  a gibbous  phase,  and  the  form  of  a crescent 
similar  to  the  moon,  plainly  indicating  that  it  is  a dark  globe, 
enlightened  only  on  one  side  by  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  moon 
was  perceived  to  be  diversified  with  hills  and  valleys,  caverns, 
rocks,  and  plains,  and  ranges  of  mountains  of  every  shape,  but 
arranged  in  a manner  altogether  different  from  what  takes  place 
in  our  sublunary  sphere.  The  sun,  which  was  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  a ball  of  liquid  fire,  was  found  to  be  sometimes 
covered  with  large  dark  spots,  some  of  them  exceeding  in  size 
the  whole  surface  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  and  giving  indica- 
tions, by  their  frequent  changes  and  disappearance,  of  vast 
operations  being  carried  on  upon  the  surface  and  in  the  interior 
of  that  magnificent  luminary.  Hundreds  of  stars  were  descried 
where  scarcely  one  could  be  perceived  by  a common  observer ; 
and  as  the  powers  of  the  telescope  were  increased,  thousands 
more  were  brought  to  view,  extending  in  every  direction,  from 
the  limits  of  unassisted  vision,  throughout  the  boundless  dimen- 
sions of  space. 

It  is  natural  for  an  intelligent  observer  of  the  universe  to 
inquire  into  the  final  causes  of  the  various  objects  which  exist 
around  him.  When  he  beholds  the  celestial  regions  filled  with 
bodies  of  an  immense  size,  arranged  in  beautiful  and  harmonious 
order,  and  performing  their  various  revolutions  with  regularity 
and  precision,  the  natural  inquiry  is  — For  what  end  has  the 
Deity  thus  exerted  his  wisdom  and  omnipotence?  What  is 
the  ultimate  destination  of  those  huge  globes  which  appear  in 
the  spaces  of  the  firmament  ? Are  these  vast  masses  of  matter 
suspended  in  the  vault  of  heaven  merely  to  diversify  the  voids 
of  infinite  space,  or  to  gratify  a few  hundreds  of  terrestrial 
astronomers  in  peeping  at  them  through  their  glasses  ? Is  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


Almighty  to  be  considered  as  taking  pleasure  in  beholding  a 
number  of  splendid  lamps,  hung  up  throughout  the  wilds  of 
immensity,  which  have  no  relation  to  the  accommodation  and 
happiness  of  intelligent  minds  ? Has  he  no  end  in  view  cor- 
responding to  the  magnificence  and  grandeur  of  the  means  he 
has  employed?  Or,  are  we  to  conclude  that  his  wisdom  and  good- 
ness are  no  less  conspicuously  displayed  than  his  omnipotence, 
in  peopling  those  vast  bodies  with  myriads  of  intelligent  exist- 
ences, of  various  orders,  to  share  in  his  beneficence  and  to  adore 
his  perfections?  This  last  deduction  is  the  only  one  which 
appears  compatible  with  any  rational  ideas  we  can  entertain  of 
the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  the  Eternal  Mind,  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Divine  government. 

This  opinion  is  now  very  generally  entertained  by  those  who 
have  turned  their  attention  to  the  subject.  But  it  is  frequently 
admitted  on  grounds  that  are  too  general  and  vague — on  the 
authority  of  men  of  science,  or  on  the  mere  ground  that  the 
planets  and  stars  are  bodies  of  immense  size ; and  hence  it  is 
only  considered  as  a probable  opinion,  and  a thorough  conviction 
of  its  truth  is  seldom  produced  in  the  mind. 

In  the  following  work,  it  shall  be  our  endeavour  to  show,  that 
the  arguments  which  may  be  brought  forward  to  establish  the 
doctrine  of  a plurality  of  worlds  have  all  the  force  of  a moral 
demonstration — that  they  throw  a lustre  on  the  perfections  of 
the  Divinity — and  that  the  opposite  opinion  is  utterly  incon- 
sistent with  every  idea  we  ought  to  entertain  of  an  All-wise 
and  Omnipotent  intelligence. 

In  order  to  the  full  illustration  of  this  subject,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  a pretty  minute  and  comprehensive  view  of 
all  the  known  facts  in  relation  to  the  heavenly  bodies;  and 
while  these  facts  will  be  made  to  bear  upon  the  object  now 
proposed,  they  will  likewise  tend  to  exhibit  the  scenery  of  the 
heavens,  and  to  elucidate  many  of  the  prominent  truths  and 
principles  connected  with  Descriptive  Astronomy.  In  the  pro- 
gress of  our  discussions,  we  shall  descend  into  many  minute 
particulars  which  are  generally  overlooked  by  writers  on  the 
subject  of  astronomy,  and  shall  introduce  several  original  obser- 
vations and  views  on  this  subject  which  have  not  hitherto  been 
particularly  detailed. 


CHAPTER  I. 


ON  THE  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  AND  APPARENT  MOTIONS 
OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS. 

Before  proceeding  to  a particular  description  of  the  real  mag- 
nitudes, motions,  and  phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  it  may 
not  be  improper  to  take  a brief  survey  of  the  general  appear- 
ance and  apparent  motions  of  the  celestial  vault,  as  they  present 
themselves  to  the  eye  of  a common  observer. 

It  is  of  importance  to  every  one  who  wishes  to  acquire  a clear 
idea  of  the  principles  of  astronomy  and  the  phenomena  of  the 
heavens,  that  he  contemplate  with  his  own  eyes  the  apparent 
aspects  and  revolutions  of  the  celestial  bodies,  before  he  proceed 
to  an  investigation  of  the  real  motions,  phenomena,  and  arrange- 
ments, which  the  discoveries  of  science  have  led  us  to  deduce. 
From  want  of  attention  to  this  circumstance,  there  are  thou- 
sands of  smatterers  in  the  science  of  astronomy  who  never  ac- 
quire any  clear  or  comprehensive  ideas  on  this  subject,  and  who, 
instead  of  clearly  perceiving  the  relations  of  the  heavenly  orbs, 
from  their  own  observation,  rely  chiefly  on  the  assertions  of 
their  instructors,  or  the  vague  descriptions  to  be  found  in 
elementary  books.  It  is  amazing  how  many  intelligent  men 
there  are  among  us,  who  would  not  wish  to  be  considered  alto- 
gether ignorant  of  modern  astronomy,  who  have  never  looked 
up  to  the  celestial  vault  with  fixed  attention — who  have  never 
made  repeated  observations  to  discover  its  phenomena  — and 
who  cannot  tell,  from  their  own  survey,  what  are  the  various 
motions  it  exhibits.  There  are  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands 
who  have  gazed  on  a clear  evening  sky,  at  certain  intervals, 
during  a period  of  many  years,  who  can  tell  no  more  about  the 
glorious  scene  around  them  than  that  they  behold  a number  of 
shining  points  twinkling  in  every  direction  in  the  canopy  above. 
Whether  these  bodies  shift  their  positions  with  regard  to  each 
other,  or  remain  at  the  same  relative  distances — whether  any  of 
them  appear  in  motion,  while  others  appear  at  rest — whether 
the  whole  celestial  canopy  appears  to  stand  still,  or  is  carried 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  HEAVENS. 


7 


round  with  some  general  motion — whether  all  the  stars  which 
are  seen  at  six  o’clock  in  the  evening  are  also  visible  at  twelve 
at  midnight — whether  the  stars  rise  and  set,  as  the  sun  and 
moon  appear  to  do — whether  they  rise  in  the  east,  or  north-east, 
or  in  any  other  quarter — whether  some  rise  and  set  regularly, 
while  others  never  descend  below  the  horizon — whether  any 
particular  stars  are  occasionally  moving  backwards  or  forwards, 
and  in  what  parts  of  the  heavens  they  appear — whether  there 
are  stars  in  our  sky  in  the  day-time  as  well  as  during  night 
— whether  the  same  clusters  of  stars  are  to  be  seen  in  summer 
as  in  winter? — to  these  and  similar  questions  there  are  multi- 
tudes, who  have  received  a regular  education,  and  who  are 
members  of  a Christian  church,  who  could  give  no  satisfactory 
answers.  And  yet  almost  every  one  of  these  inquiries  could  be 
satisfactorily  answered  in  the  course  of  a few  evenings,  by  any 
man  of  common  understanding,  who  directed  his  attention  for  a 
few  hours  to  the  subject,  and  that,  too,  without  the  knowledge 
of  a single  scientific  principle.  He  has  only  to  open  his  eyes, 
and  to  make  a proper  use  of  them — to  fix  his  attention  on  the 
objects  before  him — to  make  one  observation  after  another,  and 
compare  them  together — and  to  consider,  that  44  the  works  of 
the  Lord  are  great”  and  that  they  ought  44 to  be  sought  out,”  or 
seriously  investigated,  44  by  all  those  who  have  pleasure  therein.” 

If  this  representation  be  admitted  as  just,  what  a striking 
idea  does  it  present  of  the  apathy  and  indifference  of  the 
greater  part  of  mankind  in  regard  to  the  most  astonishing  and 
magnificent  display  which  the  Creator  has  given  of  himself  in 
his  works ! Had  we  an  adequate  conception  of  all  the  scenes 
of  grandeur,  and  the  displays  of  intelligence  and  omnipotent 
power,  which  a serious  contemplation  of  a starry  sky  is  calcu- 
lated to  convey,  all  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  would  sink  into 
comparative  insignificance,  and  all  their  pomp  and  splendour 
appear  as  empty  as  the  bubbles  of  the  deep.  It  is  amazing 
that  Christians , in  particular,  should,  in  so  many  instances, 
be  found  overlooking  such  striking  displays  of  Divine  perfection 
as  the  firmament  opens  to  our  view,  as  if  the  most  august  works 
of  the  Creator,  and  the  most  striking  demonstration  of  his 
4 4 eternal  power  and  Godhead,”  were  unworthy  of  their  regard; 
— while  we  are  commanded,  in  Scripture,  to  44  lift  up  our  eyes 
on  high,  and  consider  Him  who  hath  created  these  orbs,  who 
bringeth  forth  their  hosts  by  number,”  and  who  guides  them  in 
all  their  motions  44  by  the  greatness  of  his  strength.”  44  The 


8 


APATHY  ON  THE  SUBJECT  OF  ASTRONOMY. 


heavens,”  says  the  Psalmist,  “ declare  the  glory  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  firmament  showeth  his  handywork.”  Though  these 
luminaries  “ have  no  speech  nor  language”  — though  “ their 
voice  is  not  heard”  in  articulate  sounds,  yet,  as  they  move  along 
in  silent  grandeur,  they  declare  to  every  reflecting  beholder 
that  “ The  hand  that  made  them  is  Divine.”  * 

One  great  cause  of  this  indifference  and  inattention  is  to  be 
found  in  the  want  of  those  habits  of  observation  and  reflection 
which  ought  to  be  formed  in  early  life,  by  the  instructions 
imparted  in  the  family  circle  and  at  public  seminaries.  Chil- 
dren, at  a very  early  age,  are  endowed  with  the  principle  of 
curiosity,  and  manifest  an  eager  desire  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  properties  and  movements  of  the  various  objects  which 
surround  them;  but  their  curiosity  is,  in  most  instances,  im- 
properly directed;  they  are  seldom  taught  to  make  a right  use 
of  their  senses;  and  when  they  make  inquiries  in  reference  to 
the  appearances  of  nature,  their  curiosity  is  too  frequently 
repressed,  till  at  length  habits  of  inattention  and  indifference 
take  possession  of  their  minds.  A celebrated  author  represents 
his  pupil  as  expressing  himself  in  the  following  manner: — “I 
shall  freely  tell  you  the  things  which  frequently  occur  to  my 
mind,  and  often  perplex  my  thoughts.  I see  the  heavens  over 
my  head,  and  tread  on  the  earth  with  my  feet;  but  I am  at  a 
loss  what  to  think  of  that  mighty  concave  above  me,  or  even  of 
this  very  earth  I walk  upon.  I often  think  whether  the  earth 
may  not  stretch  out  in  breadth  to  immensity,  so  that  if  one  was 
to  travel  it  over,  one  should  never  be  able  to  get  to  the  end  of 
the  earth,  but  always  find  room  to  continue  the  journey;  nor 
can  I satisfy  myself  as  to  the  depth  of  the  earth,  whether  it  has 
any  bottom;  and  if  so,  what  it  can  be  that  is  below  the  earth. 
As  to  the  heaven,  I need  say  nothing  : every  change  that 
happens,  and  every  object  seen  there,  perplexes  me  with  doubts 
and  fruitless  guesses.  I often  wonder  how  the  sun  moves  over 
so  large  a space  every  day,  and  yet  seems  not  .to  stir  out  of  his 
place.  I would  know  where  he  goes  beyond  the  mountains  in  the 
evening;  what  becomes  of  him  in  the  night-time;  whether  he 
makes  his  way  through  the  thickness  of  the  earth,  or  the  depth 
of  the  sea,  and  so  always  shows  himself  again  from  the  east 
next  morning.  It  seems  strange  that,  being  so  small  a body  as 
he  is,  he  should  still  be  seen  everywhere,  and  still  of  the  same 
bigness.  The  various  nature  of  the  moon  seems  yet  more  per- 
plexing: to-night,  perhaps,  you  can  scarce  discern  her;  but  in 
a few  days  she  becomes  larger  than  the  body  of  the  sun  itself. 


DEFECTS  IN  JUVENILE  INSTRUCTION. 


9 


In  a little  time  after,  she  decays,  and  at  last  wears  quite  away; 
yet  she  recovers  again.  In  a word,  she  is  never  the  same,  and 
yet  still  becoming  what  she  was  before.  What  means  that 
multitude  of  stars  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  whole  sky, 
whose  number  is  so  great  that  it  is  become  proverbial?  There 
are  other  things  I want  to  be  informed  of,  but  these  are  the 
main  difficulties  which  exercise  my  thoughts,  and  perplex  my 
mind  with  endless  doubting.” 

Were  the  young,  or  any  other  class  of  persons,  led  to  such 
reflections  as  these,  and  were  their  doubts  and  inquiries  re- 
solved, in  so  far  as  our  knowledge  extends,  we  should  have  a 
hundred  intelligent  observers  of  the  phenomena  of  the  universe 
for  one  that  is  found  in  the  present  state  of  society.  But  in- 
stead of  answering  their  inquiries,  and  gratifying  their  natural 
curiosity,  we  not  unfrequently  tell  them,  that  they  are  trouble- 
some with  their  idle  questions;  that  they  ought  to  mind  their 
grammar  and  parts  of  speech,  and  not  meddle  with  philoso- 
phical matters  till  they  be  many  years  older;  that  such  subjects 
cannot  be  understood  till  they  become  men;  and  that  they  must 
be  content  to  remain  in  ignorance  for  ten  or  twelve  years  to 
come.  Thus  we  frequently  display  our  own  ignorance  and  in- 
attention, and  thus  we  repress  the  natural  desire  for  knowledge 
in  the  young,  till  they  become  habituated  to  ignorance,  and  till 
the  uneasy  sense  arising  from  curiosity  and  unsatisfied  desire 
has  lost  its  edge,  and  a desire  for  sensual  or  vicious  pleasures 
usurps  its  place.  I recollect,  when  a boy  of  about  seven  or 
eight  years  of  age,  frequently  muring  on  such  subjects  as  those 
to  which  we  have  now  alluded.  I sometimes  looked  out  from  a 
window,  in  the  day-time,  with  fixed  attention,  on  a pure  azure 
sky,  and  sometimes  stretched  myself  on  my  back  on  a meadow, 
or  in  a garden,  and  looked  up  to  the  zenith  to  contemplate  the 
blue  ethereal.  On  such  occasions  a variety  of  strange  ideas 
sometimes  passed  through  my  mind.  I wondered  how  far  the 
blue  vault  of  heaven  might  extend — whether  it  was  a solid 
transparent  arch,  or  empty  space — what  would  be  seen  could  I 
transport  myself  to  the  highest  point  I perceived;  and  what 
display  the  Almighty  made  of  himself  in  those  regions  so  far 
removed  from  mortal  view  ? I asked  myself  whether  the 
heavens  might  be  bounded  on  all  sides  by  a solid  wall — how  far 
this  wall  might  extend  in  thickness, — or  whether  there  was 
nothing  but  empty  space,  suppose  we  could  fly  for  ever  in  any 
direction?  I then  entered  into  a train  of  inquiries  as  to  what 
would  have  been  the  consequences  had  neither  heaven  nor 


10 


INNATE  CURIOSITY  OF  THE  YOUNG. 


earth  been  made,  and  bad  God  alone  existed  in  the  boundless 
void.  Why  was  the  world  created?  What  necessity  was 
there  why  God  himself  should  have  existed?  And  why  was 
not  all  one  vast  blank,  devoid  of  matter  and  intelligence?  My 
thoughts  ran  into  wild  confusion;  they  were  overwhelming,  and 
they  became  even  oppressive  and  painful,  so  as  to  induce  me  to 
put  a check  to  them,  and  hasten  to  my  playful  associates  and 
amusements.  But  although  my  relations  were  more  intelligent 
than  many  of  their  neighbours,  I never  thought  of  broaching 
such  ideas,  or  of  making  any  inquiries  of  them  respecting  the 
objects  which  had  perplexed  my  thoughts;  and  although  I had, 
it  is  not  likely  I should  have  received  much  satisfaction.  Such 
views  and  reflections  are,  perhaps,  not  uncommon  in  the  case  of 
thousands  of  young  people.  I mention  these  things  to  show 
that  the  youthful  mind,  in  consequence  of  the  innate  desire  of 
knowledge  with  which  it  is  endowed,  is  often  in  a state  peculiarly 
adapted  for  receiving  instruction  on  many  important  subjects, 
and  for  becoming  intelligent  observers  of  the  economy  of 
nature,  were  it  not  that  our  methods  of  instruction,  hitherto, 
both  in  public  and  in  private,  instead  of  gratifying  juvenile 
curiosity,  have  frequently  tended  to  counteract  the  natural 
aspirations  of  the  opening  mind. 

But,  leaving  such  reflections  and  digressions,  let  us  now 
take  a general  view  of  the  motions  and  phenomena  of  the 
nocturnal  heavens. 

Let  us  suppose  ourselves  under  the  open  canopy  of  heaven,  in 
a clear  night,  at  six  o’clock  in  the  evening,  about  the  first  of 
November.  I fix  upon  this  period,  because  the  Pleiades , or 
seven  stars,  which  are  known  to  every  one,  are  then  visible 
during  the  whole  night;  and  because,  at  this  season  of  the  year, 
the  most  brilliant  fixed  stars,  and  the  more  remarkable  constel- 
lations, are  above  the  horizon  in  the  evening.  Turning  our 
eyes,  in  the  first  place,  towards  the  eastern  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  we  shall  see  the  seven  stars  just  risen  above  the 
horizon,  in  a direction  about  half-way  between  the  east  and  the 
north-east  points,  or  east-north-east.  North-west  from  the 
seven  stars,  at  the  distance  of  thirty  degrees,  a very  bright  star, 
named  Capella , may  be  perceived,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
eighteen  degrees  above  the  horizon.  Directing  our  view 
toward  the  south,  we  shall  perceive  a pretty  bright  star,  with 
a small  star  on  the  north  and  another  on  the  south  of  it,  which 
has  just  passed  the  meridian.  This  star  is  called  Altair , and 
belongs  to  the  constellation  Aquila . It  is  nearly  south,  at  an 


THE  GREAT  BEAR. 


11 


elevation  of  forty-six  degrees,  or  about  half-way  between  the 
horizon  and  the  zenith.  About  thirty-three  degrees  north  from 
Altair , and  a little  further  to  the  west,  is  the  brilliant  star  Lyra , 
belonging  to  the  Harp . Looking  to  the  west,  a bright  star, 
named  Arcturus , will  be  seen  about  fifteen  degrees  above  the 
horizon  — a very  little  to  the  north  of  the  western  point. 
Turning  our  eyes  in  a northerly  direction,  the  constellation 
Ursa  Major , or  the  Great  Bear,  presents  itself  to  view.  This 
cluster  of  stars  is  sometimes  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
Plough , or  Charles'  Wain , and  is  known  to  almost  every 
observer.  The  relative  positions  of  the  prominent  stars  it 
contains  are  represented  in  the  following  figure.  At  the  time 
of  the  evening  now  supposed,  it  appears  a little  to  the  westward 
of  the  northern  point  of  the  heavens  — the  two  eastern  stars  of 
the  square  being  about  eighteen  degrees  west  from  that  point. 
These  two  stars,  the  uppermost  of  which  is  named  Du.bhe , and 
the  lower  one  Merak , are  generally  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  Pointers , because  they  point , or  direct  our  eye,  towards 
the  pole-star. 

Fig.  1. 

North. 


12 


HOW  TO  FIND  THE  POLAR  STAR. 


The  seven  stars  in  the  lower  part  of  the  figure  are  the  pro- 
minent stars  which  constitute  the  tail  and  the  body  of  the  Great 
Bear.  The  first  of  these,  reckoning  from  the  left,  is  termed 
Benetnach,  the  second  Mizar , the  third  Alioth , the  fourth 
Megrez , immediately  below  which  is  Phad . The  other  two 
stars,  to  the  right,  are  the  Pointers  alluded  to  above.  If  a line, 
connecting  these  two  stars,  be  considered  as  prolonged  upwards 
to  a considerable  distance,  till  it  meet  the  first  bright  star,  it 
directs  us  to  the  pole-star,  which  is  the  one  nearest  to  the  pole, 
and  which,  to  a common  observer,  never  seems  to  shift  its 
position.  The  uppermost  star  in  the  figure,  towards  the  right 
hand,  represents  the  pole-star  in  its  relative  distance  and  posi- 
tion to  the  Great  Bear.  The  distance  between  the  two  pointers, 
Dubhe  and  Merak,  is  about  five  degrees;  and  the  distance 
between  Dubhe,  the  uppermost  of  the  pointers,  and  the  pole- 
star,  is  about  twenty-nine  degrees;  so  that  the  space  between 
Dubhe  and  the  pole-star  is  nearly  six  times  the  distance 
between  the  two  pointers.  By  attending  to  these  circum- 
stances, the  distance  between  any  two  stars,  when  expressed  in 
degrees,  may  be  nearly  ascertained  by  the  eye.  The  six  small 
stars  in  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  represent  the  constellation 
Ursa  Minor , or  the  Lesser  Bear,  of  which  the  pole-star  forms 
the  tip  of  the  tail.  They  resemble  the  configuration  of  the 
stars  in  the  Great  Bear,  only  they  are  on  a smaller  scale,  and  in 
a reversed  position.* 

Having  now  fixed  on  certain  stars  or  points  in  the  heavens, 
as  they  appear  about  six  in  the  evening,  and  marked  their  rela- 
tive positions,  let  us  take  another  view  of  the  celestial  vault  as 
it  appears  about  ten  o’clock  the  same  evening,  or  the  first  clear 
evening  afterwards.  We  shall  then  find  that  the  seven  stars 
have  risen  to  a considerable  elevation,  and  are  nearly  half-way 
between  the  eastern  horizon  and  the  south;  that  the  Bull's-eye , 
a bright  ruddy  star,  which  was  before  invisible,  is  now  seen  a 
little  to  the  eastward  of  the  Pleiades;  and  that  the  brilliant 


* In  these  observations  the  observer  is  supposed  to  be  placed  in  52°  north 
latitude,  which  is  nearly  the  latitude  of  London.  Those  who  reside  in  latitudes 
between  40°  and  45°,  as  the  inhabitants  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Hartford, 
Boston,  Montreal,  Madrid,  Rome,  &c.,  would  require  to  postpone  their  obser- 
vations till  a little  after  half-past  six  in  the  evening,  and  to  make  a small 
allowance  for  the  elevations,  above  stated,  of  certain  stars  above  the  horizon. 
In  most  other  respects,  the  appearance  of  the  heavens,  to  the  inhabitants  of  such 
places,  will  be  the  same  as  here  described. 


URSA  MAJOR. 


13 


constellation  Orion , which  in  the  former  observation  was  below 
the  horizon,  is  now  distinctly  visible  in  the  east  and  south-east; 
and  the  star  Capella  midway  between  the  horizon  and  the 
zenith.  The  stars  u4ltair  and  Lyra , which  were  before  nearly 
south,  have  descended  more  than  half-way  towards  the  western 
horizon.  The  star  Arcturus  is  no  longer  visible,  having  sunk 
beneath  the  horizon;  and  many  stars  in  the  eastern  quarter  of 
the  heavens,  which  were  formerly  unseen,  now  make  their 
appearance  at  different  elevations.  The  stars  of  the  Great 
Bear,  particularly  the  two  pointers,  which  were  formerly  to  the 
west  of  the  north  point,  have  now  passed  to  the  east  of  it.  At 
twelve  o’clock,  midnight,  their  position  may  be  thus  repre- 
sented : 

Fig.  2. 


North. 


The  pointers  now  appear  considerably  to  the  eastward  of  the 
north  point,  and  considerably  more  elevated  than  before,  while 
the  stars  in  the  tail  appear  much  lower.  About  three  o’clock 
next  morning,  the  pointers  will  appear  nearly  due  east  from  the 


14 


POSITIONS  OF  URSA  MAJOR. 


pole-star,  and  at  the  same  elevation  above  the  horizon;  and  the 
other  stars  in  that  constellation  will  be  seen  hanging,  as  it  were, 
nearly  perpendicular  below  them.  At  this  hour,  the  Pleiades, 
or  seven  stars,  will  appear  to  have  moved  twenty-five  degrees 
past  the  meridian  to  the  west,  and  the  brilliant  constellation 
Orion  will  be  seen  nearly  due  south.  The  bright  star  Capella 
now  appears  nearly  in  the  zenith,  or  point  directly  over  our 
heads;  Lyra  is  in  the  horizon,  nearly  due  north;  and  Altair  has 
descended  below  the  western  horizon.  At  six  in  the  morning, 
the  seven  stars  will  be  seen  in  the  west,  only  a short  distance 
above  the  horizon;  and  all  the  other  stars  to  the  eastward  of 
them  will  be  found  to  have  made  a considerable  progress  toward 
the  west.  At  this  hour,  the  stars  of  the  Great  Bear  will  appear 
near  the  upper  part  of  the  heavens,  and  the  pointers  not  far 
from  the  zenith.  Their  position  at  this  time  is  shown  in  the 
following  figure  : 

Fig.  3. 


Here  the  pointers  appear  elevated  a great  way  above  the 
pole-star,  whereas,  in  the  observation  at  six  in  the  evening,  the 
whole  constellation  appeared  as  far  below  it.  At  eight  in  the 
morning,  the  whole  of  the  constellation  would  be  seen  nearly 


POSITIONS  OF  URSA  MINOR. 


15 


overhead,  were  the  stars  then  visible;  at  twelve,  noon,  it  would 
appear  towards  the  west,  at  a considerable  elevation;  and  at 
six  in  the  evening  it  would  again  return  to  its  former  position, 
as  noted  in  our  first  observation.  The  following  figure  repre- 
sents the  position  of  Ursa  Minor , or  the  Lesser  Bear,  at  four 
different  periods  during  twenty-four  hours. 


Fig.  4. 
D 


B 


At  six  in  the  evening,  about  the  beginning  of  November, 
Ursa  Minor  will  be  nearly  in  the  position  represented  on  the 
left  at  A , nearly  straight  west  from  the  pole-star,  which  appears 
in  the  centre.  Six  hours  afterwards,  or  at  twelve,  midnight,  it 
will  appear  below  the  pole,  in  the  position  marked  B;  at  six 
next  morning,  it  will  appear  opposite  to  its  first  position,  as 
represented  on  the  right  at  C ; at  twelve,  noon,  it  will  appear 
above  the  pole,  as  represented  at  D ; but  in  this  position  it 
cannot  be  seen  in  November,  or  during  the  winter  months,  as 
the  stars  at  that  time  of  the  day  are  eclipsed  by  the  light  of  the 
sun.  At  six  in  the  evening  it  again  returns  to  its  former 


16 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  THE  STARS. 


position.  Such  is  the  general  appearance  and  apparent  motions 
of  all  the  stars  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  within  fifty-two 
degrees  of  the  pole,  to  a spectator  situated  in  52°  of  north 
latitude.  They  all  appear  to  perform  a circuit,  in  the  course  of 
twenty-four  hours,  around  a point  which  is  the  centre  of  their 
motion,  near  to  which  is  the  pole-star.  All  the  stars  within 
this  range  never  set,  but  appear  to  describe  complete  circles,  of 
different  dimensions,  around  the  pole,  and  above  the  horizon. 
When  they  are  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course,  or  beneath  the 
pole,  they  appear  to  move  from  west  to  east;  but  when  in  the 
higher  part  of  their  course,  their  apparent  motion  is  from  east 
to  west;  and  all  their  circuits  are  completed  in  exactly  the  same 
period  of  time — namely,  twenty-three  hours,  fifty- six  minutes, 
and  four  seconds. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  appearances  which  present  them- 
selves in  other  quarters  of  the  heavens.  If  we  turn  our  eyes  a 
little  to  the  left  of  the  south,  near  to  that  point  of  the  compass 
called  south-south-east,  and  perceive  a star  near  the  horizon, 
such  as  the  star  Fomalhaut , in  the  Southern  Fish,  it  will  appear 
to  rise  to  a very  small  altitude  when  it  comes  to  the  meridian, 
only  about  six  degrees,  and  in  about  five  hours  it  will  set  near 
the  point  south -south-west,  having  described  a very  small  arc  of 
a circle  above  the  horizon.  If  we  direct  our  attention  to  the 
south-east,  and  perceive  any  bright  star,  such  as  Sirius,  or  the 
Dog-star,  in  the  horizon,  it  will  make  a larger  circuit  over  the 
southern  sky,  and  will  remain  about  nine  hours  above  the 
horizon  before  it  sets  in  the  south-west.  If  we  look  due  east, 
and  see  a star,  such  as  Procyon  in  the  constellation  of  the 
Lesser  Dog,  rising,  it  will  remain  about  twelve  hours  above  the 
horizon,  and  will  set  in  the  west.  If  we  look  to  the  north-east, 
and  perceive  any  stars,  such  as  Castor  and  Pollux , beginning  to 
appear,  they  will  make  a large  circuit  round  the  heavens,  such 
as  the  sun  describes  in  the  month  of  J une,  and,  after  the  period 
of  about  eighteen  hours,  will  set  in  the  north-west. 

Such  are  the  general  appearances  and  the  apparent  motions 
of  the  heavens  which  present  themselves  when  viewed  from  our 
northern  latitude.  Were  we  to  take  our  station  near  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  in  the  island  of  Sumatra  or  Borneo,  in  the  Galapago 
isles,  in  the  city  of  Quito  in  South  America,  or  on  any  other 
point  of  the  globe  near  the  equator,  the  motions  of  the  stars 
would  appear  somewhat  different.  The  pole-star,  instead  of 
being  at  a high  elevation,  as  in  our  latitude,  would  be  in  the 


APPEARANCES  IN  DIFFERENT  LATITUDES. 


17 


horizon.  All  the  stars  would  appear  to  rise  and  set,  and  the 
time  of  their  continuance  above  the  horizon  would  be  precisely 
the  same.  The  stars  which  rise  in  the  east  would  ascend  to  the 
zenith,  and  pass  directly  overhead,  in  the  course  of  six  hours; 
and  in  another  six  hours,  they  would  descend  to  the  horizon, 
and  set  in  the  western  point.  The  stars  near  the  northern  and 
southern  points  would  appear  to  describe  small  semicircles  above 
the  horizon  during  the  same  time,  and  their  motion  would 
appear  much  slower.  The  Great  Bear,  which  never  sets  in  our 
latitude,  would  be  above  the  horizon  only  during  the  one-half  of 
its  circuit.  Many  stars  and  constellations  would  appear  in  the 
southern  quarter  of  the  sky  which  we  never  see  in  our  latitude. 
Every  star  would  be  found  to  remain  exactly  twelve  hours 
above  and  twelve  hours  below  the  horizon,  and  all  the  visible 
stars  in  the  firmament  might,  from  such  a position,  be  perceived 
in  the  course  of  a year.  Were  we  to  take  our  station  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  in  Valdivia,  Botany  Bay,  or  Van  Diemen’s 
Land,  the  heavens  would  present  a different  aspect  from  any  of 
those  we  have  yet  contemplated.  The  north  pole-star,  the  Great 
Bear,  and  other  neighbouring  constellations,  would  never  appear 
above  the  horizon.  Many  of  the  stars  which  we  now  see  in  the 
south  would  appear  in  the  north.  The  south  pole  would  appear 
elevated  about  forty  degrees  above  the  horizon,  and  various 
clusters  of  stars  would  be  seen  revolving  round  it,  as  the  Great 
Bear  and  other  constellations  do  around  the  north  pole.  In  fine, 
could  we  take  our  station  at  ninety  degrees  of  north  latitude,  or, 
in  other  words,  at  the  north  pole  of  the  world,  we  should  just 
see  one  half  of  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  no  portion  of  the  other 
half  would  ever  be  visible.  These  stars  would  appear  neither  to 
rise  nor  set,  nor  yet  to  stand  still.  They  would  appear  to  move 
round  the  whole  heavens,  in  circles  parallel  to  the  horizon,  every 
twenty -four  hours ; and  on  every  clear  evening,  all  the  stars  that 
are  ever  visible  in  that  hemisphere  may  be  seen.  The  stars, 
however,  that  appear  in  a certain  direction  at  any  particular 
hour,  will  appear  at  the  same  elevation  in  the  opposite  direction 
twelve  hours  afterwards;  and  during  nearly  six  months  no  stars 
will  be  seen  in  the  sky. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  may  at  any  time  be  per- 
ceived by  fixing  on  a star  that  appears  nearly  in  a line  with  a 
tree,  a spire,  or  any  other  fixed  object,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes  its  motion  will  be  perceptible;  or,  fix  a common 
telescope  upon  a pedestal,  and  direct  it  to  any  star,  and  in  three 

c 


18 


MODE  OF  PERCEIVING  CELESTIAL  MOTIONS. 


or  four  minutes  it  will  be  seen  to  have  passed  out  of  the  field  of 
view.  In  the  descriptions  now  given,  1 have  spoken  of  the  pole 
star  as  if  it  were  actually  the  pole,  or  the  most  northerly  part  of 
the  heavens.  But  it  may  be  proper  to  state,  that,  though  it  is 
the  nearest  large  star  to  that  point,  it  is  not  actually  in  the  pole: 
it  is  somewhat  more  than  a degree  and  a half  from  the  polar 
point,  and  revolves  around  that  point,  in  a small  circle,  every 
twenty-four  hours.  This  motion  may  be  perceived  by  directing 
a telescope  of  a moderate  magnifying  power  to  this  star,  and 
fixing  it  in  that  position,  when,  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  two, 
it  will  be  found  to  have  moved  beyond  the  field  of  view. 

All  the  observations  above  stated  (excepting  those  supposed 
to  have  been  made  at  the  equator,  and  in  southern  latitudes) 
may  be  accomplished  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  evenings, 
without  incurring  the  loss  of  a couple  of  hours;  for  each  obser- 
vation may  be  made  in  the  space  of  five  or  ten  minutes.  Every 
inhabitant  of  the  globe  has  an  opportunity,  if  he  choose,  of  ob- 
serving the  aspects  of  the  heavens  in  the  manner  now  described, 
excepting,  perhaps,  those  who  live  in  dark  and  narrow  lanes,  in 
large  cities,  where  the  sky  is  scarcely  visible — the  most  un- 
natural situations  in  which  human  beings  can  be  placed,  and 
which  ought  no  longer  to  remain  as  the  abodes  of  men.  And 
the  man  who  will  not  give  himself  the  trouble  of  making  such 
observations  on  the  starry  heavens,  deserves  to  remain  in  igno- 
rance of  the  most  sublime  operations  of  the  Creator. 

Let  us  now  consider  what  is  the  conclusion  we  ought  to  deduce 
from  our  observations  respecting  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
heavens.  All  the  phenomena  which  we  have  described,  when 
duly  considered  and  compared  together,  conspire  to  show,  that 
the  whole  celestial  vault  performs  an  apparent  revolution  round 
the  earth — carrying,  as  it  were,  all  the  stars  along  with  it,  in  the 
space  of  twenty-four  hours.  This  may  be  plainly  demonstrated 
by  means  of  a celestial  globe,  on  which  all  the  visible  stars  are 
depicted.  When  the  north  pole  is  elevated  fifty-two  degrees 
above  the  northern  horizon,  and  the  globe  turned  round  on  its 
axis,  all  the  variety  of  phenomena  formerly  described  may  be 
clearly  perceived. 

Here,  then,  we  have  presented  to  view  a scene  the  most  mag- 
nificent and  sublime.  All  the  bright  luminaries  of  the  firmament 
revolving  in  silent  grandeur  around  our  world — not  only  the 
stars  visible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  but  all  the  ten  thousands  and 
millions  of  stars  which  the  telescope  has  enabled  us  to  descry 


CONCLUSIONS  FROM  THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  STARS.  19 

in  every  region  of  the  heavens,  for  they  all  seem  to  partake  of 
the  same  general  motion.  If  we  could  suppose  this  motion  to  be 
real , it  would  convey  to  the  mind  the  most  magnificent  and  im- 
pressive idea  which  could  possibly  be  formed  of  the  incompre- 
hensible energies  of  Omnipotence.  For  here  we  have  presented 
to  view,  not  only  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousands  of  immense 
globes,  far  superior  to  the  whole  earth  in  magnitude,  but  the 
greater  part  of  them  carried  round  in  their  revolutions  with  a 
velocity  which  baffles  the  power  of  the  most  capacious  mind  to 
conceive.  In  this  case,  there  would  be  millions  of  those  vast 
luminaries  which  behoved  to  move  at  the  rate  of  several  thou- 
sands of  millions  of  miles  in  the  space  of  a second  of  time.  For, 
in  proportion  to  the  distances  of  any  of  these  bodies  would  be  the 
rapidity  of  their  motions.  The  nearest  star  would  move  more 
than  fourteen  hundred  millions  of  miles  during  the  time  that  the 
pendulum  of  a clock  moves  from  one  side  to  another;  but  there 
are  thousands  of  stars  visible  through  our  telescopes  at  least  a 
hundred  times  further  distant,  and  whose  distance  cannot  be  less 
than  2,000,000,000,000,000,  or  two  thousand  billions  of  miles. 
This  forms  the  radius,  or  half  diameter  of  a circle  whose  cir- 
cumference is  about  12,500,000,000,000,000,  or  twelve  thousand 
five  hundred  billions  of  miles.  Around  this  circumference, 
therefore,  the  star  behoved  to  move  every  day.  In  a siderial 
day,  of  twenty-three  hours,  fifty' six  minutes,  and  four  seconds, 
there  are  86, 164  seconds.  Divide  the  number  of  miles  in  the 
circumference  by  the  number  of  seconds  in  a day,  and  the  quo- 
tient will  be  somewhat  more  than  145,000,000,000,  or  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  thousand  millions,  which  is  the  number 
of  miles  that  such  a star  would  move  in  the  space  of  a second,  or 
during  the  pulsation  of  an  artery,  were  the  celestial  vault  to  be 
considered  as  really  in  motion — a rate  of  motion,  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  millions  of  times  greater  than  that  of  a cannon 
ball,  and  seven  hundred  thousand  times  more  rapid  than  the 
motion  of  light  itself,  which  is  considered  as  the  swiftest  motion 
in  nature. 

The  idea  of  such  astonishing  velocities  completely  overpowers 
the  human  imagination,  and  is  absolutely  inconceivable.  We 
perceive  no  objects  nor  motions  connected  with  our  globe  that 
can  assist  our  imagination  in  forming  any  definite  conceptions 
on  this  subject.  The  swiftest  impulse  that  was  ever  given  to  a 
cannon  ball,  or  any  other  projectile,  sinks  into  nothing  on  the 
comparison.  Were  we  transported  to  the  planet  Saturn,  and 

c 2 


20  CONCLUSIONS  FROM  THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  STARS. 


placed  on  its  equatorial  regions,  we  should  behold  a stupendous 
arch,  thirty  thousand  miles  in  breadth,  and  more  than  six  hun- 
dred thousand  miles  in  circumference,  revolving  around  us  every 
ten  hours,  at  the  rate  of  a thousand  miles  in  a minute,  and  sixty 
thousand  miles  every  hour.  But  even  this  astonishingly  rapid 
motion  would  afford  us  little  assistance  in  forming  our  concep- 
tions, as  it  bears  no  comparison  to  the  motions  to  which  we  have 
now  adverted.  It  becomes  those  persons,  therefore,  who  refuse 
to  admit  the  motion  of  the  earth,  to  consider,  and  to  ponder  with 
attention,  the  only  other  alternative  which  must  be  admitted — 
namely,  that  the  whole  of  the  bodies  of  the  firmament  move 
round  the  earth  every  day  with  such  amazing  velocities  as  have 
now  been  stated.  If  it  appear  wonderful  that  this  globe  of  land 
and  water,  with  all  its  mighty  cities  and  vast  populations  should 
move  round  its  axis  every  day,  at  the  rate  of  a thousand  miles 
an  hour,  how  much  more  wonderful  and  passing  all  comprehen- 
sion, that  myriads  of  huge  globes  should  move  round  the  earth 
in  the  same  time  with  such  inconceivable  rapidity.  If  we  reject 
the  motion  of  the  earth  because  it  is  incomprehensible,  and  con- 
trary to  all  our  preconceived  notions,  we  must,  on  the  same 
ground,  likewise  reject  the  motion  of  the  heavens,  which  is  far 
more  difficult  to  be  conceived,  and  consequently  fall  into  down- 
right scepticism,  and  reject  even  the  evidence  of  our  senses,  as 
to  what  appears  in  the  economy  of  nature.  Such  views  and 
considerations,  however,  teach  us  that,  in  whatever  point  of  view 
we  contemplate  the  works  of  the  Almighty,  particularly  the 
scenery  of  the  heavens,  the  mind  is  irresistibly  inspired  with 
sentiments  of  admiration  and  wonder.  To  the  vulgar  eye,  as 
well  as  to  the  philosophic,  66  the  heavens  declare  the  glory  of 
God.”  Their  harmony  and  order  evince  his  wisdom  and  intel- 
ligence, and  the  numerous  bodies  they  contain,  and  the  as- 
tonishing motions  they  exhibit,  on  whatever  hypothesis  they  are 
contemplated,  demonstrate,  both  to  the  savage  and  the  sage,  the 
existence  of  a power  which  no  created  being  can  control. 

“ View  the  amazing  canopy  ! 

The  wide,  the  wonderful  expanse ! 

Let  each  bold  infidel  agree 

That  God  is  there,  unknown  to  chance.” 

We  cannot,  however,  admit,  in  consistency  with  the  dictates 
of  enlightened  reason,  that  the  apparent  diurnal  movements  of 
the  stars  are  the  real  motions  with  which  these  bodies  are  im- 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH  S MOTION. 


21 


pelled.  For,  in  the  first  place,  such  motions  are  altogether 
unnecessary  to  produce  the  effect  intended — namely,  the  alternate 
succession  of  day  and  night  with  respect  to  our  globe;  and  we 
know  that  the  Almighty  does  nothing  in  vain,  but  employs  the 
most  simple  means  to  accomplish  the  most  astonishing  and 
important  ends.  The  succession  of  day  and  night  can  be  accom- 
plished by  a simple  rotation  of  the  earth,  from  west  to  east, 
every  twenty-four  hours,  which  will  completely  account  for  the 
apparent  motion  of  the  heavens,  in  the  same  time,  from  east  to 
west.  This  we  find  to  be  the  case  with  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
which  are  a thousand  times  larger  than  the  earth,  as  well  as  with 
the  other  planets,  which  have  a rotation  round  their  axes,  some 
in  ten  hours,  some  in  twenty-three,  and  some  in  ten  hours  and 
a half ; — and  consequently,  from  the  surfaces  of  these  bodies,  the 
heavens  will  appear  to  revolve  around  them  in  another  direc- 
tion from  what  they  do  to  us,  and,  in  certain  instances,  with  a 
much  greater  degree  of  velocity.  We  must  therefore  conclude 
that  our  motion  every  day  towards  the  east  causes  the  heavens 
to  appear  as  if  they  moved  towards  the  west;  just  as  the  trees 
and  houses  on  the  side  of  a narrow  river  appear  to  move  to  the 
west  when  we  are  sailing  down  its  current  in  a steam  boat 
towards  the  east. 

2.  Because  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  that  so  many  bodies , of 
different  magnitudes , and  at  different  distances  from  the  earth , 
could  all  have  the  same  period  of  diurnal  revolution . The  sun 
is  four  hundred  times  further  distant  from  us  than  the  moon, 
and  is  sixty  millions  of  times  larger.  Saturn  and  Uranus  are 
still  further  from  the  earth;  th$  comets  are  of  different  sizes, 
and  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions,  and  at  different  dis- 
tances; the  fixed  stars  are  evidently  placed  at  different  distances 
from  the  earth  and  from  each  other;  yet  all  these  bodies  have 
exactly  the  same  period  of  revolution,  even  to  a single  moment, 
if  the  heavens  revolve  around  the  earth,  and  that,  too,  notwith- 
standing the  other  motions,  in  various  directions,  which  many 
of  them  perform.  It  is,  therefore,  much  more  natural  and  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  the  earth  revolves  around  its  axis,  since 
this  circumstance  solves  all  the  phenomena,  and  removes  every 
difficulty. 

3.  Because  such  a rate  of  motion  in  the  heavenly  bodies , if  it 
could  be  supposed  to  exist,  would  soon  shatter  them  to  atoms . 
Were  a ball  of  wood  to  be  projected  from  a cannon  at  the  rate 
of  a thousand  miles  an  hour,  in  a few  moments  it  would  be  re- 


22 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  MOTION. 


duced  to  splinters;  and  hence,  the  forage  and  other  soft  sub- 
stances, projected  from  a musket,  or  a piece  of  ordnance,  are 
instantly  torn  to  pieces.  What,  then,  might  be  supposed  to  be 
the  consequence,  were  a body  impelled  through  the  regions  of 
space  with  a velocity  of  a hundred  and  forty  thousand  millions 
of  miles  in  a moment  of  time?  It  would  most  assuredly  reduce 
to  atoms  the  most  compact  bodies  in  the  universe,  although  they 
were  composed  of  substances  harder  than  adamant.  But  as  the 
fixed  stars  appear  to  be  bodies  of  a nature  somewhat  similar  to 
the  sun,  and  as  the  sun  is  much  less  dense  than  the  earth,  and 
only  a little  denser  than  water,  it  is  evident  that  they  could  not 
withstand  such  a rapidity  of  motion,  which  would  instantly 
shatter  their  constitution,  and  dissipate  every  portion  of  their 
substance  through  the  voids  of  space. 

4.  Because  there  is  no  instance  known  in  the  universe  (if  that 
to  which  we  are  now  adverting  be  excepted)  of  a larger  body 
revolving  around  a smaller.  The  planet  Jupiter  does  not 
revolve  around  his  satellites,  which  are  a thousand  times  less 
than  that  ponderous  globe,  but  they  all  revolve  around  him;  nor 
does  the  earth,  which  is  fifty  times  larger  than  the  moon,  revolve 
around  that  nocturnal  luminary,  but  she  regularly  revolves 
about  the  earth,  as  the  more  immediate  centre  of  her  motion. 
The  sun  does  not  perform  his  revolution  around  Venus  or  Mer- 
cury, but  these  planets,  which  are  small  compared  with  that 
mighty  orb,  continually  revolve  about  him  as  the  centre  of  their 
motions.  Neither  on  earth  nor  in  the  heavens  is  there  an  in- 
stance to  be  found  contrary  to  this  law,  which  appears  to  per- 
vade the  whole  system  of  universal  nature:  but  if  the  diurnal 
revolution  of  the  stars  is  to  be  considered  as  their  proper 
motions,  then  the  whole  universe,  with  all  the  myriads  of  huge 
globes  it  contains,  is  to  be  considered  as  daily  revolving  around 
an  inconsiderable  ball,  which,  when  compared  with  these  lumi- 
naries, is  only  as  an  atom  to  the  sun,  or  as  the  smallest  particle 
of  vapour  to  the  vast  ocean. 

5.  The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  cannot  be  admitted  as 
real , because  it  would  confound  all  our  ideas  of  the  intelligence 
of  the  Deity . While  it  tended  to  exalt  our  conceptions  of  his 
omnipotence  to  the  highest  *pitch,  it  would  convey  to  us  a most 
unworthy  and  distorted  idea  of  his  wisdom . Wisdom  is  that 
perfection  of  an  intelligent  agent  which  enables  him  to  propor- 
tionate one  thing  to  another,  and  to  devise  the  most  proper 
means , in  order  to  accomplish  important  ends.  We  infer  that 


REAL  AND  APPARENT  MOTION. 


23 


an  artist  is  a wise  man  from  the  nature  of  his  workmanship,  and 
the  methods  he  employs  to  accomplish  his  purposes.  We  should 
reckon  that  person  foolish  in  the  extreme  who  should  construct, 
at  a great  expense,  a huge  and  clumsy  piece  of  machinery  for 
carrying  round  a grate,  and  the  wall  of*  a house  to  which  it  is 
attached,  for  the  purpose  of  roasting  a small  fowl  placed  in  the 
centre  of  its  motion,  instead  of  making  the  fowl  turn  round  its 
different  sides  to  the  fire.  We  should  consider  it  as  the  most 
preposterous  project  that  ever  was  devised,  were  a community  to 
attempt,  by  machinery,  to  make  a town  and  its  harbour  to  move 
forward  to  meet  every  boat  and  small  vessel  that  entered  the 
river  on  which  it  was  situated,  instead  of  allowing  such  vehicles 
to  move  onward  as  they  do  at  present.  But  none  of  these 
schemes  would  be  half  so  preposterous  as  to  suppose  that  the 
vast  universe  moved  daily  round  an  inconsiderable  ball,  when 
no  end  is  accomplished  by  such  a revolution  but  what  may  be 
effected  in  the  most  simple  manner.  Such  a device,  therefore, 
cannot  be  any  part  of  the  arrangement  of  Infinite  Wisdom.  It 
would  tend  to  lessen  our  ideas  of  the  intelligence  of  that  ador- 
able Being  who  is  “ wonderful  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in 
working,”  who  “ established  the  world  by  his  wisdom,  and 
stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  understanding,”  and  whose 
wisdom  as  far  excels  that  of  man  as  the  “ heaven  in  its  height 
surpasses  the  earth.”  This  argument  alone  I consider  as  de- 
monstrative of  the  position  we  are  now  attempting  to  support. 

The  above  are  a few  arguments  which,  when  properly  weighed, 
ought  to  carry  conviction  to  the  mind  of  every  rational  inquirer, 
that  the  general  motion  which  appears  in  the  starry  heavens  is 
not  real,  but  is  caused  by  the  dotation  of  the  earth  round  its 
axis  every  day,  by  which  we  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe 
are  carried  round  in  a regular  and  uniform  motion  from  west  to 
east.  When  this  conclusion  is  admitted,  it  removes  every  diffi- 
culty and  every  disproportion  which  at  first  appeared  in  the 
motions  and  arrangements  of  the  celestial  orbs,  and  reduces  the 
system  of  the  universe  to  a scene  of  beauty,  harmony,  and 
order,  worthy  of  the  infinite  wisdom  of  Him  who  formed  the 
plan  of  the  mighty  fabric,  and  who  settled  “ the  ordinances  of 
heaven.”  Instead,  then,  of  remaining  in  a state  of  absolute  rest, 
as  we  are  at  first  apt  to  imagine,  we  are  transported  every 
moment  towards  the  east  with  a motion  ten  times  more  rapid 
than  what  has  ever  been  effected  by  steam -carriages  or  air- 
balloons.  It  is  true,  we  do  not  feel  this  motion,  because  it  is 


24 


REAL  AND  APPARENT  MOTION. 


smooth  and  uniform,  and  is  never  interrupted.  The  earth  is 
carried  forward  in  its  course,  not  like  a ship  in  the  midst  of  a 
tempestuous  ocean,  but  through  a smooth  ethereal  sea,  where  all 
is  calm  and  serene,  and  where  no  commotions  to  disturb  its 
motion  ever  arise.  Carried  along  with  a velocity  which  is 
common  to  everything  around  us,  we  are  in  a state  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  a person  in  a ship  which  is  sailing  with 
rapidity  in  a smooth  current:  he  feels  no  motion,  except  when 
a large  wave  or  other  body  happens  to  dash  against  the  vessel; 
he  fancies  himself  at  rest,  while  the  shore,  the  buildings,  and 
the  hills,  appear  to  him  to  move;  but  the  smallness  of  the 
vessel,  compared  with  the  largeness  of  the  objects  which  seem 
to  move,  convinces  him  that  the  motion  is  connected  with  the 
ship  in  which  he  sails:  and  on  similar  principles  we  infer  that 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  is  caused  by  the  real  motion 
of  the  earth,  which  carries  us  along  with  it,  as  a ship  carries 
its  passengers  along  the  sea.  With  regard  to  motion,  it  may  be 
observed  that,  strictly  speaking,  we  do  not  perceive  any  motion 
either  in  the  earth  or  in  the  heavens.  When  we  look  at  a star 
with  the  utmost  steadiness,  we  perceive  no  motion,  although  we 
were  to  keep  our  eye  fixed  upon  it  for  a few  minutes;  but,  if 
we  mark  the  position  of  the  star  with  regard  to  a tree  or  a 
chimney-top,  and,  after  an  hour  or  two,  view  the  star  from  the 
same  station,  we  shall  find  that  it  then  appears  in  a different 
direction.  Hence  we  infer  that  motion  has  taken  place;  but 
whether  the  motion  be  in  the  star,  or  in  the  persons  who  have 
been  observing  it,  remains  still  to  be  determined.  We  perceive 
no  motion  in  the  star  any  more  than  we  feel  the  motion  of  the 
earth.  All  that  we  perceive  is,  that  the  two  objects  have 
changed  their  relative  positions;  and  therefore  the  body  that  is 
really  in  motion  must  be  determined  by  such  considerations  as 
we  have  stated  above. 

Besides  the  apparent  diurnal  revolution  of  the  heavens,  there 
is  another  apparent  motion  which  requires  to  be  considered.  It 
is  wrell  known  to  every  one  who  has  paid  the  least  attention  to 
this  subject,  that  we  do  not  perceive  the  same  clusters  of  stars 
at  every  season  of  the  year.  If,  for  example,  we  take  a view  of 
the  starry  heavens  on  the  first  of  October,  at  ten  o’clock  in  the 
evening,  and  again,  at  the  same  hour,  on  the  first  of  April,  we 
shall  find  that  the  clusters  of  stars  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
heavens  are,  at  the  latter  period,  altogether  different  from  those 
which  appeared  in  the  former;  and  those  which  are  in  the 


ANNUAL  MOTION  OF  THE  STARS. 


25 


neighbourhood  of  the  pole  will  appear  in  a different  position  in 
April,  from  what  they  did,  at  the  same  hour,  in  the  month  of 
October.  The  square  of  the  Great  Bear , for  example,  will 
appear  immediately  below  the  pole  star  in  October;  whereas,  in 
April,  it  will  appear  as  far  above  it,  and  near  to  the  zenith.  In 
the  former  case,  the  two  stars  called  the  ‘pointers  will  point 
upwards  to  the  pole,  in  the  latter  case  they  will  point  down- 
wards. In  October,  this  constellation  will  appear  nearly  in 
the  position  represented  in  fig.  1,  (p.  11;)  in  April,  it  will 
appear  nearly  as  represented  in  fig.  3,  (p.  14.)  These  varia- 
tions in  the  appearance  of  the  stars  lead  us  to  conclude  that 
there  is  an  apparent  annual  motion  in  these  luminaries.  This 
motion  may  be  observed,  if  we  take  notice,  for  a few  days  or 
weeks,  of  those  stars  which  are  situated  near  the  path  of  the 
sun.  When  we  see  a bright  star  near  the  western  horizon,  a 
little  elevated  above  the  place  where  the  sun  went  down,  if  we 
continue  our  observation,  we  shall  find  that  every  day  it  appears 
less  elevated  at  the  same  hour,  and  seems  to  be  gradually 
approaching  to  the  point  of  the  heavens  in  which  the  sun  is 
situated,  till,  in  the  course  of  a week  or  two,  it  ceases  to  be 
visible,  being  overpowered  by  the  superior  brightness  of  the 
sun.  In  the  course  of  a month  or  two,  the  same  star  which  dis- 
appeared in  the  west,  will  be  seen  rising  some  time  before  the 
sun  in  the  east,  having  passed  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  sun 
to  a distance  considerably  westward  of  him.  The  stars  in  the 
western  quarter  of  the  heavens  which  appeared  more  elevated, 
will  be  found  gradually  to  approximate  to  the  sun,  till  they 
likewise  disappear;  and  in  this  manner  all  the  stars  of  heaven 
seem  to  have  a revolution,  distinct  from  their  diurnal,  from  east 
to  west,  which  is  accomplished  in  the  course  of  a year. 

The  different  positions  of  the  Pleiades , or  Seven  Stars,  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  will  afford  every  observer  an  op- 
portunity of  perceiving  this  motion.  About  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, these  stars  will  be  seen,  about  eight  o’clock  in  the  even- 
ing, a little  to  the  south  of  the  north-east  point  of  the  horizon; 
about  the  middle  of  January,  at  the  same  hour , they  will  be 
seen  on  the  meridian,  or  due  south;  on  the  first  of  March  they 
will  be  seen  half-way  between  the  zenith  and  the  western 
horizon;  about  the  middle  of  April,  they  will  appear  very  near 
the  horizon;  soon  after  which  they  will  be  overpowered  by  the 
solar  rays,  and  will  remain  invisible  for  nearly  two  months, 
after  which  they  will  reappear  in  the  east,  early  in  the  morning, 
before  the  rising  sun. 


26  SUNS  APPARENT  MOTION  ILLUSTRATED. 

This  annual  motion  of  the  stars  evidently  indicates  that  the 
sun  has  an  apparent  motion  every  day  from  west  to  east , con- 
trary to  his  apparent  diurnal  motion,  which  is  from  east  to  west. 
This  apparent  motion  is  at  the  rate  of  nearly  a degree  every 
day,  a space  nearly  equal  to  twice  the  sun’s  apparent  diameter. 
In  this  way  the  sun  appears  to  describe  a circle  around  the 
whole  heavens,  from  west  to  east,  in  the  course  of  a year.  This 
apparent  motion  of  the  sun  is  caused  by  the  annual  revolution 
of  the  earth  around  the  sun  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  which 
completely  accounts  for  all  the  apparent  movements  in  the  sun 
and  stars  to  which  we  have  now  adverted.  If  we  place  a candle 
upon  a table  in  the  midst  of  a room,  and  walk  round  it  in  a 
circle,  and,  as  we  proceed,  mark  the  different  parts  of  the  oppo- 
site walls  with  which  the  candle  appears  coincident,  when  we 
have  completed  our  circle  the  candle  will  appear  to  have  made  a 
revolution  round  the  room.  If  the  walls  be  conceived  to  repre- 
sent the  starry  heavens,  and  the  candle  the  sun,  it  will  convey 
a rude  idea  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  and  the  different 
clusters  of  stars  which  appear  at  different  seasons  of  the  year, 
in  consequence  of  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth.  But  this 
subject  will  be  more  particularly  explained  in  the  sequel. 

From  what  we  have  now  stated  in  relation  to  the  apparent 
motions  of  the  heavens,  we  are  necessarily  led  to  conceive  of 
the  earth  as  a body,  placed,  as  it  were,  in  the  midst  of  infinite 
space,  and  surrounded  in  every  direction,  above,  below,  on  the 
right  hand,  and  on  the  left,  with  the  luminaries  of  heaven, 
which  display  their  radiance  from  every  quarter,  at  immeasur- 
able distances;  and  that  its  annual  and  diurnal  motions  account 
for  all  the  movements  which  appear  in  the  celestial  sphere. 
Hence  it  is  a necessary  conclusion,  that  we  are  surrounded  at 
all  times  with  a host  of  stars,  in  the  day-time  as  well  as  in  the 
night,  although  they  are  then  imperceptible.  The  reason  why 
they  are  invisible  during  the  day,  is  obviously  owing  to  their 
fainter  light  being  overpowered  by  the  more  vivid  splendour  of 
the  sun,  and  the  reflective  power  of  the  atmosphere.  But 
although  they  are  then  imperceptible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  they 
can  be  distinctly  perceived,  not  only  in  the  mornings  and  even- 
ings, but  even  at  noon-day,  while  the  sun  is  shining  bright,  by 
means  of  telescopes  adapted  to  an  equatorial  motion;  and  in 
this  way  almost  every  star  visible  to  the  naked  eye  at  night  can 
be  pointed  out,  even  amidst  the  effulgence  of  day,  when  it  is 
within  the  boundary  of  our  hemisphere.  When  the  stars  which 


MAGNIFICENCE  OF  A STARRY  SKY\ 


27 


appear  in  our  sky  at  night  have,  in  consequence  of  the  rotation 
of  the  earth,  passed  from  our  view,  in  about  twelve  hours  after- 
wards they  will  make  their  appearance  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  to  those  who  live  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe, 
and  when  they  have  cheered  the  inhabitants  of  those  places 
with  their  radiance,  they  will  again  return  to  adorn  our  noc- 
turnal sky. 

On  the  whole,  the  starry  heavens  present , even  to  the  vulgar 
eye , a scene  of  grandeur  and  magnificence . We  know  not  the 
particular  destination  of  each  of  those  luminous  globes  which 
emit  their  radiance  to  us  from  afar,  or  the  specific  ends  it  is 
intended  to  subserve  in  the  station  which  it  occupies,  though  we 
cannot  doubt  that  all  of  them  answer  purposes  in  the  Creator’s 
plan  worthy  of  his  perfections  and  of  their  magnitude  and 
grandeur  ; but  we  are  certain  that  they  have,  at  least,  a remote 
relation  to  man,  as  well  as  to  other  beings  far  removed  from  us, 
in  the  decorations  they  throw  around  his  earthly  mansion.  They 
serve  as  a glorious  ceiling  to  his  habitation.  Like  so  many 
thousand  sparkling  lustres,  they  are  hung  up  in  the  magnificent 
canopy  which  covers  his  abode.  He  perceives  them  shining  and 
glittering  on  every  hand,  and  the  dark  azure  which  surrounds 
them  contributes  to  augment  their  splendour.  The  variety  of 
lustre  which  appears  in  every  star,  from  those  of  the  sixth  mag- 
nitude to  those  of  the  first,  and  the  multifarious  figures  of  the 
different  constellations,  present  a scene  as  diversified  as  it  is 
brilliant.  What  are  all  the  decorations  of  our  public  gardens, 
with  their  thousands  of  variegated  lamps,  compared  with  ten 
thousands  of  suns,  diffusing  their  beams  over  our  habitation 
from  regions  of  space  immeasurably  distant?  A mere  gew-gaw 
in  comparison, — and  yet  there  are  thousands  who  eagerly  flock 
to  such  gaudy  shows  who  have  never  spent  an  hour  in  contem- 
plating the  glories  of  the  firmament,  which  may  be  beheld 
“ without  money  and  without  price.”  That  man  who  has  never 
looked  up  with  serious  attention  to  the  motions  and  arrange- 
ments of  the  heavenly  orbs,  must  be  inspired  with  but  a slender 
degree  of  reverence  for  the  Almighty  Creator,  and  devoid  of 
taste  for  enjoying  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime. 

The  stars  not  only  adorn  the  roof  of  our  sublunary  mansion, 
they  are  also  in  many  respects  useful  to  man.  Their  influences 
are  placid  and  gentle.  Their  rays,  being  dispersed  through 
spaces  so  vast  and  immense,  are  entirely  destitute  of  heat  by 
the  time  they  arrive  at  our  abode;  so  that  we  enjoy  the  view  of 


28 


UTILITY  OF  THE  STARS. 


a numerous  assemblage  of  luminous  globes  without  any  danger 
of  their  destroying  the  coolness  of  the  night,  or  the  quiet  of  our 
repose.  They  serve  to  guide  the  traveller  both  by  sea  and  land; 
they  direct  the  navigator  in  tracing  his  course  from  one  conti- 
nent to  another  through  the  pathless  ocean.  They  serve  “ for 
signs  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days  and  years.”  They  direct  the 
labours  of  the  husbandman,  and  determine  the  return  and  con- 
clusion of  the  seasons.  They  serve  as  a magnificent  “ time- 
piece,” to  determine  the  true  length  of  the  day  and  of  the  year, 
and  to  mark  with  accuracy  all  their  subordinate  divisions.  They 
assist  us  in  our  commerce,  and  in  endeavouring  to  propagate 
religion  among  the  nations,  by  showing  us  our  path  to  every 
region  of  the  earth.  They  have  enabled  us  to  measure  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  globe,  to  ascertain  the  density  of  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  composed,  and  to  determine  the  exact  position  of 
all  places  upon  its  surface.  They  cheer  the  long  nights  of 
several  months  in  the  polar  regions,  which  would  otherwise  be 
overspread  with  impenetrable  darkness.  Above  all,  they  open 
a prospect  into  the  regions  of  other  worlds,  and  tend  to  amplify 
our  views  of  that  Almighty  Being  who  brought  them  into 
existence  by  his  power,  and  “ whose  kingdom  ruleth  over  all.” 
In  these  arrangements  of  the  stars  in  reference  to  our  globe, 
the  Divine  wisdom  and  goodness  may  be  clearly  perceived.  We 
enjoy  all  the  advantages  to  which  we  have  alluded  as  much  as 
if  the  stars  had  been  created  solely  for  the  use  of  our  world, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  they  serve  to  diversify  the  nocturnal 
sky  of  other  planets,  and  to  diffuse  their  light  and  influence  over 
ten  thousands  of  other  worlds  with  which  they  are  more  imme- 
diately connected,  so  that,  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  every 
other,  the  Almighty  produces  the  most  sublime  and  diversified 
effects  by  means  the  most  simple  and  economical,  and  renders 
every  part  of  the  universe  subservient  to  another,  and  to  the 
good  of  the  whole. 

Before  proceeding  further,  it  may  be  expedient  to  explain 
the  measures  by  which  astronomers  estimate  the  apparent  dis- 
tances between  any  two  points  of  the  heavens.  Every  circle  is 
supposed  to  be  divided  into  360  equal  parts.  A circle  which 
surrounds  the  concavity  of  the  heavens,  and  one  which  sur- 
rounds an  artificial  globe,  are  divided  into  the  same  number  of 
parts.  The  number  360  is  entirely  arbitrary,  and  any  other 
number,  had  mathematicians  chosen,  might  have  been  fixed 
upon  : and  hence  the  French,  in  their  measures  of  the  circle, 


MEASURES  OF  THE  CELESTIAL  SPHERE. 


29 


divide  it  into  400  equal  parts,  or  degrees ; each  degree  into  1 00 
minutes,  and  each  minute  into  100  seconds.  The  reason  why 
the  number  360  appears  to  have  been  selected  is,  that  this 
number  may  be  divided  into  halves,  quarters,  and  eighths,  with- 
out a fraction;  and  perhaps,  because  the  year  was,  in  former 
times,  supposed  to  contain  about  360  days.  Each  degree  is 
divided  into  sixty  minutes,  each  minute  into  sixty  seconds,  each 
second  into  sixty  thirds,  &c.  Degrees  are  marked  thus,0 ; 
minute,';  seconds,";  thirds,'".  Thus  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
for  January  1st,  1836,  was  twenty-three  degrees,  twenty- 
seven  minutes,  forty-two  seconds,  which  are  thus  expressed, 
23°  27'  42". 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  remark,  that  when  we  state  the 
number  of  degrees  between  two  objects,  either  on  the  earth  or 
in  the  heavens,  it  is  not  intended  to  express  the  real  distance, 
but  only  the  relative  or  apparent  distance  of  the  objects.  Thus, 
when  we  say  that  two  places  on  the  earth  which  lie  directly 
north  and  south  of  each  other  are  twenty  degrees  distant,  it 
does  not  convey  an  idea  of  the  actual  distance  of  these  places 
from  each  other,  but  only  what  proportion  of  the  earth's  cir- 
cumference intervenes  between  them.  If,  however,  we  know 
the  number  of  yards  or  miles  contained  in  that  circumference, 
or  in  a single  degree  of  it,  we  can  then  find  the  actual  distance, 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  degrees  by  the  number  of  miles 
in  a degree.  But  this  supposes  that  the  extent  of  a degree  on 
the  earth’s  surface  has  been  measured,  and  the  number  of  yards 
or  miles  it  contains  ascertained.  In  like  manner,  when  we  say 
that  two  stars  in  the  heavens  are  fifteen  degrees  from  each  other, 
this  merely  expresses  there  relative  position,  or  what  portion  of 
a great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere  intervenes  between  them, 
but  determines  nothing  as  to  their  real  distance,  which  is  far 
surpassing  our  comprehension.  The  real  magnitude  of  objects 
or  spaces  in  the  heavens  depends  upon  their  distance.  Thus, 
the  apparent  breadth  or  diameter  of  the  moon  is  about  half  a 
degree,  or  nearly  thirty-two  minutes,  and  that  of  the  sun  nearly 
the  same;  but  as  the  moon  is  much  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun, 
a minute  of  a degree  on  her  surface  is  equal  only  to  about  seventy 
miles,  while  a minute  on  the  sun’s  surface  is  equal  to  more  than 
28,000  miles,  which  is  four  hundred  times  greater.  The  greatest 
apparent  diameter  of  Saturn  is  twenty  seconds,  or  one-third  of 
a minute;  the  greatest  diameter  of  Venus  is  fifty-eight  seconds, 
or  nearly  a minute:  but  as  Saturn  is  much  further  distant  from 


30 


CELESTIAL  MEASURES. 


us  than  Venus,  his  real  diameter  is  79,000  miles,  while  that  of 
Venus  is  only  7800.  Before  the  real  diameter  of  any  object  in 
the  heavens  can  be  determined,  its  distance  must  be  ascer- 
tained. 

Those  who  have  never  been  in  the  practice  of  applying 
angular  instruments  to  the  heavens,  may  acquire  a tolerably 
correct  idea  of  the  extent  of  space  which  is  expressed  by  any 
number  of  degrees,  by  considering  that  the  apparent  diameters 
of  the  sun  and  moon  are  about  half  a degree , — that  the  distance 
between  the  two  pointers  in  the  Great  Bear  is  about  live  de- 
grees,— that  the  distance  between  the  pole-star  and  the  nearest 
pointer  is  twenty-nine  degrees, — that  the  distance  between  the 
Pleiades  and  the  ruddy  star  Aldeharon  which  lies  to  the  east- 
ward of  these  stars,  is  fourteen  degrees, — that  the  distance  be- 
tween Castor  and  Pollux  is  five  degrees, — and  the  distance 
between  Bellatrix  and  Beielgeuse , the  stars  in  the  right  and  left 
shoulder  of  Orion , is  eight  degrees.  Perhaps  the  most  definite 
measure  for  a common  observer  is  that  which  is  to  be  found  in 
the  three  stars  in  a straight  line,  which  form  the  belt  of  Orion, 
which  are  known  to  every  one,  and  which  are  distinguished  in 
England  by  the  name  of  the  Three  Kings , or  the  Ell  and  Yard , 
and  in  Scotland  by  “ The  Lady's  Elwand .”  The  line  which 
unites  these  three  stars,  which  are  equi-distant,  measures  exactly 
three  degrees,  and  consequently  just  one  degree  and  a half  be- 
tween the  central  star  and  the  one  on  each  side  of  it.  By 
applying  this  rule  or  yard  to  any  of  the  spaces  of  the  firmament, 
the  number  of  degrees  which  intervenes  between  any  two  ob- 
jects may  be  nearly  ascertained.  Orion  is  the  most  striking  and 
splendid  of  all  the  constellations ; and  as  the  equator  runs 
through  the  middle  of  it,  it  is  visible  from  all  the  habitable  parts 
of  the  globe.  About  the  middle  of  January  it  is  nearly  due 
south  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening. 

I have  been  somewhat  particular  in  the  above  sketches  of  the 
apparent  motions  and  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  because  such 
descriptions  are  seldom  or  never  given  in  elementary  treatises, 
because  I wish  every  lover  of  the  science  of  astronomy  to  con- 
template with  his  own  eyes  the  scenery  of  the  sky,  and  because 
such  views  and  observations  of  the  general  aspect  of  the  heavens 
are  necessary  in  order  to  understand  the  true  system  of  the 
universe. 


31 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  PLANETARY 
SYSTEM. 

When  we  take  an  attentive  view  of  the  nocturnal  heavens  at 
different  periods,  we  find  that  the  stars  never  shift  their  positions 
with  respect  to  each  other.  The  stars,  for  instance,  that  form 
the  constellation  of  Orion,  preserve  the  same  relative  positions 
to  each  other  every  succeeding  day,  and  month,  and  year.  They 
exhibit  the  same  general  figure  which  they  presented  in  the 
days  of  our  fathers,  and  even  in  the  times  of  Amos  and  of  Job. 
We  never  see  the  three  stars  in  the  belt,  which  Job  calls  “ the 
bands  of  Orion,”  move  nearer  to  or  further  from  each  other. 
We  never  see  the  pointers  in  the  Great  Bear  directed  on  any 
other  line  than  towards  the  pole-star,  nor  do  we  ever  see  Aide - 
baran  to  the  north  or  south,  or  to  the  west,  of  the  seven  stars; 
and  the  same  may  be  said,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  in  re- 
gard to  all  the  stars  in  the  heavens,  which  preserve  invariably 
the  same  general  relations  to  each  other  from  one  year  and 
century  to  another.  Hence  they  have  been  denominated  fixed 
stars . But  when  an  attentive  observer  surveys  the  heavens 
with  minuteness,  he  will  occasionally  perceive  some  bodies  that 
shift  their  positions.  When  the  movements  of  these  bodies  are 
carefully  marked,  they  will  be  found  to  direct  their  course  some- 
times to  the  east,  at  other  times  to  the  west,  and  at  certain 
times  to  remain  in  a fixed  position;  but,  on  the  whole,  their 
motion  is  generally  from  west  to  east.  Their  motion  is  per- 
ceived by  their  appearing  sometimes  on  one  side  of  a star,  and 
sometimes  on  another.  They  appear  to  partake  of  the  general 
diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  and  rise  and  set  with  the  stars 
to  which  they  are  adjacent.  These  bodies  have  received  the 
name  of  planets — that  is,  wandering  stars.  And,  indeed,  were 
their  real  motions  such  as  they  appear  to  a common  observer, 
the  name  would  be  exceedingly  appropriate.  For  their  ap- 
parent motions  are  in  many  instances  exceedingly  irregular ; 
and  were  they  delineated  on  paper,  or  attempted  to  be  exhibited 
by  machinery,  they  would  appear  an  almost  inextricable  maze. 
Fifteen  bodies  of  this  description  have  been  discovered  in  the 


32 


PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM  DESCRIBED. 


heavens,  ten  of  which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  can 
only  be  perceived  by  means  of  telescopes.  They  were,  of 
course,  unknown  to  the  ancients.  The  names  of  the  five  which 
have  been  known  in  all  ages  are,  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars, 
Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  The  names  of  the  other  ten,  which  have 
been  discovered  within  the  last  seventy  years,  are,  Vesta, 
Juno,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Uranus,  Neptune,  Astraea,  Hebe,  Iris,  and 
Flora. 

It  was  long  before  the  true  magnitudes  and  real  motions  of 
these  globes  were  fully  ascertained.  Most  of  the  ancient  astro- 
nomers supposed  that  the  earth  was  a quiescent  body  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  the  planets  revolved  around  it 
in  so  many  different  heavens  which  were  nearly  concentric,  and 
raised  one  above  another  in  a certain  order.  The  first  or 
lowest  sphere  was  the  Moon , then  Mercury , and  next  in  order, 
Venus , the  Sun , Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  then  the  sphere  of 
the  fixed  stars.  They  found  it  no  easy  matter  to  reconcile  the 
daily  motion,  which  carries  the  stars  from  east  to  west,  with 
another  peculiar  and  slow  motion  which  carries  them  round  the 
poles  of  the  ecliptic,  and  from  west  to  east,  in  the  period  of 
25,000  years;  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  a third  motion,  which 
carries  them  along  from  east  to  west  in  a year,  around  the  poles 
of  the  ecliptic.  They  were  no  less  at  a loss  how  to  reconcile 
the  annual  and  the  daily  motion  of  the  sun,  which  are  directly 
contrary  to  each  other.  An  additional  difficulty  was  found  in 
the  particular  course  pursued  by  each  individual  planet.  It 
required  no  little  ingenuity  to  invent  celestial  machinery  to  ac- 
count for  all  the  variety  of  motions  which  appeared  among  the 
heavenly  orbs.  After  the  first  mobiles,  or  powers  of  motion, 
they  placed  some  very  large  heavens  of  solid  crystal,  which,  by 
rolling  one  over  another,  and  by  a mutual  and  violent  clashing, 
communicated  to  each  other  the  universal  motion  received  from 
the  primum  mobile,  or  first  mover ; while,  by  a contrary  motion, 
they  resisted  this  general  impression,  and  by  degrees  carried 
away,  each  after  its  own  manner,  the  planet  for  the  service  of 
which  it  was  designed.  These  heavens  were  conceived  to  be 
solid ; otherwise,  the  upper  ones  could  have  had  no  influence  on 
the  lower  to  make  them  perform  their  daily  motion,  and  they 
behoved  to  be  of  the  finest  crystal,  because  the  light  of  the  stars 
could  not  otherwise  have  penetrated  the  thickness  of  these 
arches  applied  one  over  another,  nor  have  reached  our  eyes. 
Above  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars  were  placed  the  first  and 


PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM  DESCRIBED. 


33 


second  crystalline  heavens,  and  above  these  the  primum  mobile , 
which  carried  round  all  the  subordinate  spheres.  They  imagined 
that  the  primum  mobile  was  circumscribed  by  the  empyreal 
heaven,  of  a cubic  form,  which  they  supposed  to  be  the  blessed 
abode  of  departed  souls.  Some  astronomers  were  contented 
with  seven  or  eight  different  spheres,  while  others  imagined  no 
less  than  seventy  of  them,  wrapt  up  one  within  another,  and  all 
in  separate  motions.  They  no  sooner  discovered  some  new 
motion  or  effect,  formerly  unknown,  than  they  immediately  set 
to  work  and  patched  up  a new  sphere,  giving  it  such  motions 
and  directions  as  were  deemed  requisite.  Cycles,  epicycles, 
deferents,  centric  and  eccentric  circles,  solid  spheres,  and  other 
celestial  machinery,  were  all  employed  to  solve  the  intricate 
motions  of  the  heavens,  which  seemed  to  baffle  all  the  efforts  of 
human  ingenuity.  After  their  system  was  supposed  to  be  com- 
pleted, new  anomalies  were  detected,  which  required  new  pieces 
of  machinery  to  be  applied  to  solve  appearances.  But  after  all 
the  ingenuity  displayed  in  their  patchings  and  re-patchings,  the 
celestial  spheres  could  never  be  got  to  move  onward  in  harmony, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens.* 

It  would  be  no  easy  task  to  describe  how  their  epicycles  could 
be  made  to  move  through  the  thick  crusts  of  crystal  of  which 
their  spheres  were  made.  They,  however,  found  some  means 
or  other  to  extricate  themselves  from  every  difficulty,  as  they 
always  had  recourse  to  geometrical  lines,  which  never  found 
any  obstacle  to  their  passage  on  paper.  To  make  all  the  pieces 
of  their  machinery  move  with  as  much  smoothness  and  as  little 
inconsistency  as  possible,  they  were  forced  to  delineate  certain 
furrows,  or  to  notch  on  the  arches  certain  grooves,  in  which 
they  jointed  and  made  the  tenons  and  mortices  of  their  epicycles 
to  slide.  All  this  celestial  joiner’s  work,  to  which  succeeding 
astronomers  added  several  pieces  to  produce  balancings,  or  per- 
petual goings  backward  and  forward,  had  no  other  tendency  but 
to  conceal  the  sublime  and  beautiful  simplicity  of  nature,  and  to 
prevent  mankind,  for  many  ages,  from  recognising  the  true 
system  of  the  world.  With  all  their  cumbrous  and  complicated 
machinery,  they  never  could  account  for  the  motions  and  other 
phenomena  of  Mercury  and  Venus,  and  the  different  apparent 
magnitudes  which  the  planets  present  in  different  parts  of  their 
orbits.  Without  admitting  the  motion  of  the  earth,  it  would 


* See  La  Pluche’s  “ Spectacle  de  la  Nature” 

D 


34 


REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM. 


surpass  the  wisdom  of  an  angel,  on  any  rational  principles,  to 
solve  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens.  This  is  the  system  which 
has  been  denominated  the  Ptolemaic , from  Ptolemy,  an  astro- 
nomer in  Egypt,  who  first  gave  a particular  explanation  of  its 
details;  but  it  is  understood  to  have  been  received  by  the  ancient 
Greek  philosophers,  except  the  Pythagoreans.  It  was  supported 
by  Aristotle,  who  wrote  against  the  motion  of  the  earth;  and  as 
the  authority  of  this  philosopher  was  thought  sufficient  to  esta- 
blish the  opinion  of  the  earth  being  a quiescent  body,  it  was 
generally  received  by  the  learned  in  Europe  till  the  sixteenth 
century,  or  a little  after  the  period  of  the  Reformation.  This  is 
the  system  to  which  almost  all  our  theological  writers,  even  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  uniformly  refer,  when  alluding  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  to  the  general  frame  of  the  world;  and,  in 
consequence  of  admitting  so  absurd  and  untenable  a theory, 
their  reflections  and  remarks  in  reference  to  the  objects  of  the 
visible  world,  and  many  of  their  comments  on  scripture,  are 
frequently  injudicious  and  puerile,  and,  in  many  instances,  worse 
than  useless.  That  such  a clumsy  and  bungling  system  should 
have  been  so  long  in  vogue  is  a disgrace  to  the  ages  in  which  it 
prevailed,  and  shows  that  even  the  learned  were  more  prone  to 
frame  hypotheses,  and  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  Aristotle, 
than  to  follow  the  path  of  observation,  and  to  contemplate  with 
their  own  eyes  the  phenomena  of  the  universe.  To  suppose 
that  the  Architect  of  nature  was  the  author  of  such  a complex 
and  clumsy  piece  of  machinery,  was  little  short  of  a libel  on  his 
perfections,  and  a virtual  denial  of  his  infinite  wisdom  and 
intelligence. 

u O how  unlike  the  complex  works  of  man, 

Heaven’s  easy,  artless,  unencumber’d  plan.” 

From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  Ptolemaic  system,  we  may  learn 
into  how  many  absurdities  we  involve  ourselves  by  the  denial  of 
a simple  important  fact,  and  the  admission  of  a single  false 
principle;  and  the  importance  of  substantiating  every  fact,  and 
proving  every  principle  in  all  our  investigations  of  the  system 
of  nature,  and  the  order  of  the  universe. 

The  first  among  the  moderns  who  had  the  boldness  to  assail 
the  ancient  system  which  had  so  long  prevailed,  was  the  famous 
Nicolaus  Copernicus , who  was  born  at  Thorn,  in  Polish  Prussia, 
in  1472,  and  died  at  Worms,  where  he  had  been  made  a canon 
of  the  church  by  his  mother’s  brother,  who  was  bishop  of  that 


COPERNICAN  SYSTEM. 


35 


place.  His  attention  was  early  directed  to  the  sciences  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy.  Having  travelled  into  Italy,  for 
the  purpose  of  enlarging  his  knowledge  on  such  subjects,  he 
remained  some  time  at  Bologna  with  Dominicus  Maria,  an 
eminent  professor  of  astronomy,  and  afterwards  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  soon  acquired  so  great  a reputation,  that  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  mathematics,  which  he  taught  for  a long  time  with 
great  applause.  At  the  same  time,  he  was  unwearied  in  making 
celestial  observations.  Returning  to  his  own  country,  he  began 
to  apply  his  vast  knowledge  in  mathematics  to  correct  the  sys- 
tem of  astronomy  which  then  prevailed.  Having  applied  him- 
self with  assiduity  to  the  study  of  the  heavens,  he  soon  per- 
ceived that  the  hypothesis  of  the  ancient  astronomers  was  neither 
conformable  to  harmony,  uniformity,  nor  reason.  With  a bold, 
independent  spirit,  and  a daring  hand,  he  dashed  the  crystalline 
spheres  of  Ptolemy  to  pieces,  swept  away  his  cycles,  epicycles, 
and  deferents,  stopped  the  rapid  whirl  of  the  primum  mobile, 
fixed  the  sun  in  the  centre  of  the  planetary  orbs,  removed  the 
earth  from  its  quiescent  state,  and  set  it  in  motion,  through  the 
ethereal  void,  along  with  the  other  planets,  and  thus  introduced 
simplicity  and  harmony  into  the  system  of  the  universe.  But 
such  a bold  attack  on  ancient  systems,  which  had  been  so  long 
venerated,  could  not  be  made  without  danger.  Even  the  learned 
set  themselves  in  opposition  to  such  bold  innovations  in  philo- 
sophy; the  vulgar  considered  such  doctrines  as  chimeras,  con- 
trary to  the  evidence  of  their  senses,  and  allied  to  the  ravings  of 
a maniac;  and  the  church  thundered  its  anathemas  against  all 
such  opinions  as  most  dangerous  heresies.  When  only  about 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  Copernicus  wrote  his  book  “ On  the 
Revolution  of  the  Celestial  Orbs;”  but  fearing  the  obloquy  and 
persecution  to  which  his  opinions  might  expose  him,  he  with- 
held its  publication,  and  communicated  his  views  only  to  a few 
friends.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he  postponed  the  publish- 
ing of  this  celebrated  work,  in  which  his  system  is  demonstrated; 
and  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  even  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  that  he  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  usher  it  into  the 
world.  Overcome,  at  length,  by  the  importunity  of  his  friends, 
he  put  the  work  in  order,  and  dedicated  it  to  Pope  Paul  III.; 
in  which  dedication,  not  to  shock  received  prejudices,  he  pre- 
sented his  system  under  the  form  of  an  hypothesis.  “ Astrono- 
mers,” said  he,  “ being  permitted  to  imagine  circles  to  explain 
the  motion  of  the  stars,  I thought  myself  equally  entitled  to 

d 2 


36 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  COPERNICAN  SYSTEM. 


examine  if  the  supposition  of  the  motion  of  the  earth  would 
render  the  theory  of  these  appearances  more  exact  and  simple.” 
The  work  was  printed  at  Nuremberg,  at  the  expense  of  his 
friends,  who  wrote  a preface  to  it,  in  order  to  palliate,  as  much 
as  possible,  so  extraordinary  an  innovation.  But  its  immortal 
author  did  not  live  to  witness  the  success  of  his  work.  He  was 
attacked  by  a bloody  flux,  which  was  succeeded  by  a palsy  in 
his  left  side;  and  only  a few  hours  before  he  breathed  his  last, 
he  received  a copy  of  his  work,  which  had  been  sent  him  by  one 
of  his  scientific  friends.  But  he  had  then  other  cares  upon  his 
mind,  and  composedly  resigned  his  soul  to  God  on  the  23rd  of 
May,  1543,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age.  His  remains 
were  deposited  in  the  cathedral  of  Frauenberg;  and  spheres  cut 
out  in  relief  on  his  tomb  were  the  only  epitaph  that  recorded 
his  labours.  Not  many  years  ago  his  bones  were  wantonly  carried 
off  to  gratify  the  impious  curiosity  of  two  Polish  travellers.* 

The  system  broached  by  Copernicus,  notwithstanding  much 
opposition,  soon  made  its  way  among  the  learned  in  Europe.  It 
was  afterwards  powerfully  supported  by  the  observations  and 
reasonings  of  Galileo,  Kepler,  Halley,  Newtgn,  La  Place,  and 
other  celebrated  philosophers,  and  now  rests  on  a foundation 
firm  and  immutable  as  the  laws  of  the  universe.  The  introduc- 
tion of  this  system  may  be  considered  an  era  as  important  in 
philosophy  as  the  period  of  the  Reformation  was  in  politics  and 
religion.  It  had  even  a bearing  upon  the  progress  of  religion 
itself,  and  upon  the  views  we  ought  to  take  of  the  character  and 
operations  of  the  great  Creator.  It  paved  the  way  for  a rational 
contemplation  of  his  works,  and  for  all  those  brilliant  disco- 
veries in  the  celestial  regions  which  have  expanded  our  views 
of  his  adorable  perfections,  and  of  the  boundless  extent  of  his 
universal  empire.  It  was  promulgated  nearly  at  the  same 
period  when  the  superstitions  of  the  dark  ages  were  beginning 
to  be  dissipated,  when  the  power  of  the  Romish  church  had  lost 
its  ascendancy,  when  the  art  of  printing  had  begun  to  illuminate 
the  world,  when  the  mariner’s  compass  was  applied  to  the  art  of 
navigation,  when  the  western  continent  was  discovered  by 
Columbus,  and  when  knowledge  was  beginning  to  diffuse  its 
benign  influence  over  the  nations;  and,  therefore,  it  may  be 
considered  as  connected  with  that  series  of  events  which  are  des- 

* A facsimile  of  one  of  the  letters  of  Copernicus  may  be  seen  in  No.  IX*  of 
the  “Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,”  for  July,  1821;  and  an  engraving  of 
the  house  in  which  he  lived  in  No.  XIII.  of  the  same  Journal,  for  July,  1822. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  PLANETS.  37 

tined,  in  the  moral  government  of  God,  to  enlighten  and  reno- 
vate the  world. 

I shall  now  proceed  to  consider  the  arrangement  of  the  pla- 
netary or  Copernican  system,  and  some  of  the  arguments  by 
which  it  is  supported. 

In  this  system,  the  sun  is  considered  as  placed  near  the  centre. 
Around  this  central  luminary  the  planets  perform  their  revolu- 
tions in  the  following  order: — First,  the  planet  Mercury,  at  the 
distance  from  the  sun’s  centre  of  about  37  millions  of  miles. 
Next  to  Mercury  is  Venus,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
morning  and  evening  star,  at  the  distance  of  31  millions  of 
miles  from  the  orbit  of  Mercury,  and  68  millions  from  the  sun. 
The  Earth  is  considered  as  the  planet  next  in  order,  which 
revolves  at  the  distance  of  95  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun, 
and  27  millions  from  the  orbit  of  Venus.  Further  from  the  sun 
than  the  Earth  is  the  planet  Mars,  which  is  145  millions  of  miles 
from  the  sun,  and  50  millions  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  Earth. 
Next  to  the  orbit  of  Mars  are  four  small  planetary  bodies,  some- 
times named  Asteroids , which  were  discovered,  at  different 
times,  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  They  are 
named  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas.  Of  these,  the  first  in 
order  from  the  sun  is  Vesta,  at  the  distance  of  225  millions  of 
miles;  the  next,  Juno,  at  the  distance  of  253  millions;  Ceres, 
at  260  millions;  and  Pallas,  at  266  millions  of  miles.  The 
planet  Jupiter  is  the  next  in  order,  and  performs  its  revolution 
in  an  orbit  495  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun,  and  400  from 
the  orbit  of  the  Earth.  Saturn  is  nearly  double  the  distance  of 
Jupiter  from  the  sun,  being  distant  from  that  orb  above  900 
millions  of  miles.  The  most  distant  planet  in  the  system  which 
has  yet  been  discovered,  is  Uranus  or  Herschel,  which  is  removed 
from  the  sun  at  more  than  double  the  distance  of  Saturn — namely, 
above  1800  millions  of  miles.*  The  orbit  of  this  planet  includes 
the  orbits  of  the  whole  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system  that 
have  hitherto  been  discovered,  and  is  eleven  thousand  three 
hundred  millions  of  miles  in  circumference,  and  three  thousand 
six  hundred  millions  in  diameter.  To  move  round  this  cir- 
cumference, at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  every  hour,  would  require 
above  forty-two  thousand  nine  hundred  years.  Such  is  the 
order,  and  the  ample  dimensions,  of  that  system  of  which  we 
form  a part;  and  yet  it  is  but  a mere  speck  in  the  map  of  the 


The  lately  discovered  planets  will  be  afterwards  noticed. 


38 


SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


universe.  The  following  diagram  exhibits  the  order  of  the 
planets  in  the  solar  system: — 


Fig.  5. 


In  the  above  figure,  the  small  central  star  represents  the  sun, 
and  the  other  circles  represent  the  orbits  of  Mercury,  Yenus, 
the  Earth,  Mars,  Yesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  Uranus,  in  the  order  here  enumerated.  The  orbits  of  the 
new  planets,  Yesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  are  represented  as 
crossing  each  other,  as  they  do  in  nature;  and  the  portion  of  a 
long  ellipse  which  crosses  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets  represents 
the  orbit  of  a comet.  The  proportional  distances  and  magnitudes 
of  the  planets  are  represented  in  a subsequent  chapter. 

I shall  now  proceed  to  offer  a few  arguments  or  demonstra- 
tions of  the  truth  of  the  solar  system,  as  first  proposed  by 
Copernicus,  and  now  received  by  all  astronomers.  I shall  first 
state  those  which  may  be  called  presumptive  arguments,  or 
which  amount  to  a high  degree  of  probability,  and  then  briefly 
illustrate  those  which  I consider  as  demonstrative.  Having 
already  endeavoured  to  prove  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth, 
I shall  consider  that  point  as  settled,  and  confine  myself  at  pre- 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  ANNUAL  MOTION.  39 

sent  to  the  consideration  of  the  earth’s  annual  revolution , and 
the  phenomena  of  the  planets  which  result  from  this  motion. 

The  presumptive  arguments  that  the  earth  is  a planetary 
body,  and  revolves  round  the  sun  in  concert  with  other  planets, 
are — 1.  It  is  most  simple  and  agreeable  to  the  general  arrange- 
ments of  the  Creator , that  such  an  order  as  we  have  now  stated 
should  exist  in  the  planetary  system.  For,  by  the  motion  of 
the  earth,  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  are  resolved  and 
completely  accounted  for,  which  they  cannot  be  on  any  other 
system,  without  the  supposition  of  clumsy  and  complex  machinery 
and  motions,  altogether  repugnant  to  reason  and  to  what  we 
know  of  the  other  operations  of  the  all-wise  Creator.  Besides, 
it  is  contrary  to  the  first  rule  laid  down  in  philosophy — “ That 
more  causes  of  natural  things  are  not  to  be  admitted  than  are 
both  true  and  sufficient  to  explain  the  phenomena.”  But  the 
Ptolemaic,  or  vulgar  system  of  the  world,  assumes  the  existence 
of  facts  which  can  never  be  established,  and  introduces  cumbrous 
and  complicated  motions  which  are  quite  unnecessary  for  ex- 
plaining the  phenomena.  2.  Because  it  is  more  rational  to  sup- 
pose that  the  earth  moves  about  the  sun , than  that  the  huge  masses 
of  the  planets , some  of  which  are  a thousand  times  larger  than 
our  globe — or  that  the  stupendous  body  of  the  sun,  which  is 
thirteen  hundred  thousand  times  greater — should  perform  a 
revolution  around  so  comparatively  small  a globe  as  the  earth . 
To  suppose  the  contrary,  would  be  repugnant  to  all  the  laws  of 
motion  that  are  known  to  exist  in  the  universe.  We  might  as 
well  expect  that  a sling,  which  contains  a mill-stone  in  it,  may 
be  fastened  to  a pebble,  and  continue  its  motion  about  that 
pebble,  without  removing  it,  as  that  the  sun  can  revolve  about 
the  earth,  while  the  earth  continues  immovable  in  the  centre  of 
that  motion. 

3.  It  was  a law  discovered  by  Kepler,  by  which  all  the  planets, 
both  primary  and  secondary,  are  regulated — “ That  the  squares 
of  the  periodic  times  of  the  planets’  revolutions  are  as  the  cubes 
of  their  distances * but,  if  the  sun  move  around  the  earth,  that 
law,  which  is  established  on  the  most  accurate  observations,  is 


* For  example:  if  one  planet  were  four  times  as  distant  as  another,  it  would 
revolve  in  a period  eight  times  as  long ; for  the  cube  of  4 = 64  is  equal  to  the 
square  of  8.  Thus  Mars  is  about  four  times  as  remote  from  the  sun  as  Mer- 
cury, and  Uranus  four  times  as  remote  as  Jupiter,  and  their  periods  of  revolu- 
tion correspond  to  this  proportion  of  their  distances.  This  argument,  when 
properly  understood,  is  demonstrative. 


40  PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  ANNUAL  MOTION. 

completely  destroyed,  and  the  general  order  and  symmetry  of 
the  system  of  nature  infringed  upon  and  interrupted.  For, 
according  to  that  law,  the  sun  would  be  so  far  from  revolving 
about  the  earth  in  365  days,  that  it  would  require  no  less  than 
589  years  to  accomplish  one  revolution,  as  will  appear  from  the 
following  calculation  : — The  moon  revolves  round  the  earth  in 
twenty-seven  days  eight  hours,  at  the  distance  of  240,000  miles; 
the  sun  is  placed  at  the  distance  of  95,000,000  miles.  The 
period  of  the  revolution  of  any  body  revolving  at  that  distance 
will  be  found,  according  to  the  law  now  stated,  by  the  following 
proportion: — As  the  cube  of  the  moon’s  distance  : is  to  the  cube 
of  the  sun’s  distance  : : so  is  the  square  of  the  moon’s  period  : 
to  the  square  of  the  period  of  any  body  moving  about  the  earth 
at  the  distance  of  the  sun.  Now,  the  cube  of  the  moon’s  dis- 
tance, 240,000,  is  13,824,000,000,000,000  ; the  cube  of  the 
sun’s  distance,  95,000,000,  is  857,375,000,000,000,000,000,000. 
The  square  of  the  moon’s  periodical  time,  twenty-seven  days 
eight  hours,  is  747,  which,  multiplied  by  the  cube  of  the  sun’s 
distance,  and  divided  by  the  cube  of  the  moon’s  distance,  is 
46,329,508,463,  the  square  root  of  which  is  2 15,242  days,  or  589 
years  and  257  days.  This  calculation  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  de- 
termine the  point  in  question;  for  there  is  no  exception  known 
to  the  law  we  have  stated.  Besides,  did  the  sun  observe  this  uni- 
versal law,  and  yet  revolve  in  365  days,  his  distance  ought  to  be 
only  about  1,351,000  miles,  whereas  it  can  be  shown  that  it  is 
about  95,000,000.  For,  as  the  square  of  the  moon’s  period,  747  : 
is  to  the  square  of  the  sun’s  365  x 365=  133,225  : : so  is  the  cube 
of  the  moon’s  distance  from  the  earth  13,824,000,000,000,000 : to 
2, 465,465,050,240,963,855,  the  cube  root  of  which  is  1,351,295, 
or  one  million,  three  hundred  and  fifty-one  thousand,  two  hun- 
dred and  ninety-five  miles,  which  behoved  to  be  the  sun’s  dis- 
tance if  he  revolved  about  the  earth  in  accordance  with  this 
universal  law  which  governs  every  moving  body,  both  primary 
and  secondary.* 

4.  It  appears  most  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  sun  is 
placed  near  the  centre  of  the  planetary  system,  as  it  is  the 
fountain  of  light  and  heat,  for  cheering  and  irradiating  all  the 
worlds  within  the  sphere  of  its  influence  ; and  it  is  from  the 

* The  primary  planets  are  those  which  revolve  about  the  sun  as  their  centre, 
as  Venus,  Mars,  and  Jupiter.  The  secondary  planets  are  those  which  revolve 
around  the  primary,  as  the  moons  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus. 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTHS  ANNUAL  MOTION. 


41 


centre  alone  that  these  emanations  can  be  distributed  in  uniform 
and  equable  proportions  to  all  the  planets.  If  the  earth  were  in 
the  centre,  with  the  sun  and  planets  revolving  around  it,  the 
planetary  worlds  would  be,  at  different  times,  at  very  different 
distances  from  the  sun,  and  when  nearest  to  him  would  be 
scorched  with  excessive  heat,  and  at  their  greatest  distance  would 
be  frozen  with  excessive  cold;  and  as  some  of  the  planets  would, 
on  this  supposition,  be  sometimes  five  times  the  distance  from 
the  source  of  light  and  heat  from  what  they  are  at  other  times, 
it  would  produce  the  same  effect  as  if  the  earth  were  occasion- 
ally to  be  carried  beyond  the  orbit  of  Jupiter,  four  hundred  and 
seventy  millions  of  miles  from  its  present  position.  But  if  the 
sun  be  considered  as  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  we  have 
then  presented  to  our  view  a system  of  universal  harmony  and 
order — the  planets  all  revolving  around  the  great  central  orb, 
by  the  universal  law  or  power  of  gravitation,  and  everything 
corresponding  to  the  laws  of  circular  motion  and  central  forces. 
Otherwise,  we  are  left  entirely  in  the  dark  as  to  the  operations 
of  nature  and  the  system  of  the  universe. 

There  is  no  more  difficulty  in  conceiving  the  earth  to  move 
than  that  it  should  remain  quiescent  in  the  same  place.  For  if 
the  earth  remain  at  rest,  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  it  is  sup- 
ported upon  nothing,  in  the  midst  of  infinite  space,  by  the  power 
of  Omnipotence  : and  we  have  as  little  conception  how  a pon- 
derous globe  of  the  size  of  the  earth  should  remain  suspended 
upon  nothing , as  that  it  should  move  through  the  voids  of  space 
with  a velocity  of  sixty-eight  thousand  miles  an  hour.  The 
Power  that  is  able  to  suspend  it"  in  empty  space,  can  as  easily 
make  it  fly  through  the  ethereal  regions,  as  is  the  case  with 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  which  are  globes  a thousand  times  larger; 
and  such  a motion  is  necessary , in  order  to  display  the  harmony 
and  proportion  of  the  Creator’s  works,  and  to  vindicate  his  all- 
perfect wisdom  and  intelligence.  It  is  even  no  more  difficult 
to  conceive  such  a motion  than  it  is  to  conceive  how  the  earth 
can  be  inhabited  all  around,  and  that  there  can  be  no  such  thing 
as  up  or  down  in  the  universe,  absolutely  considered — how,  for 
example,  persons  can  stand  upright  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
globe — that  our  antipodes,  standing  with  their  heads  in  an 
opposite  direction  to  ours,  can  look  up  to  the  sky  and  down  to 
the  earth  just  as  we  do,  without  any  more  danger  of  falling  off 
from  its  surface  than  we  are  in  of  being  carried  upwards  into 
the  air.  These  are  circumstances  which  necessarily  flow  from 


42 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTHS  ANNUAL  MOTION. 


the  rotundity  of  the  earth  and  its  attractive  power;  they  are 
known  to  every  one,  and  cannot  possibly  be  disputed,  unless  we 
deny  the  globular  form  of  the  earth,  or,  in  other  words,  contra- 
dict the  evidence  both  of  our  reason  and  our  senses.  Hut  we 
know  as  little  of  that  power  which  draws  everything  to  the 
earth  on  all  sides,  as  we  do  of  a power  which  carries  a planet 
around  its  orbit  at  the  rate  of  a hundred  thousand  miles  an  hour. 
Both  are  effects  of  that  Almighty  agent  who  contrived  the  uni- 
verse, “ who  is  wonderful  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in  working,” 
and  “ whose  ways,”  in  numerous  instances,  “ are  past  finding 
out.”  But  in  all  cases  where  the  least  doubt  exists,  we  ought 
to  adopt  that  view  of  the  Creator’s  plans  and  operations  which 
is  most  consistent  with  the  idea  of  a Being  of  infinite  perfection. 

The  arguments  now  stated,  although  we  could  produce  no 
other,  would  be  sufficient  to  corroborate  the  idea  that  the  earth 
is  a planetary  body,  performing  its  motion  through  the  depths 
of  space;  but,  happily,  we  are  able  to  produce  proofs  of  the  sun 
occupying  the  centre  of  the  system,  which  may  be  considered 
as  demonstrative.  Those  proofs  I shall  now  state  as  briefly  as 
possible. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  the  planets  Mercury  and  Venus  are  uni- 
formly observed  to  have  two  conjunctions  with  the  sun,  but  no 
opposition,  which  could  not  possibly  happen,  unless  the  orbits 
of  those  planets  lay  within  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  as  delineated 
in  the  plan  of  the  solar  system.  This  circumstance  will  be  more 
particularly  understood  by  the  following  diagram  : — 


PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  ANNUAL  MOTION. 


43 


Fig.  6. 


Let  S represent  the  sun  in  the  centre  of  the  system;  M> 
Mercury;  F,  Venus;  E , Earth;  and  G,  Mars.  It  is  evident, 
that  when  Mercury  is  at  M9  and  Venus  at  V , they  will  be  seen 
from  the  earth,  E , in  the  same  part  of  the  heavens  as  the  sun — 


44  PROOFS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  ANNUAL  MOTION. 

namely,  at  B,  where  Mars  is  represented ; because  they  are  all 
situated  in  the  same  straight  line,  EB . In  this  position,  they  are 
between  the  sun  and  the  earth,  and  this  is  called  their  inferior 
conjunction.  Again,  when  Mercury  and  Venus  come  to  the 
situations  H , K,  they  are  again  in  the  straight  line  joining  the 
centres  of  the  earth  and  sun,  and  are  therefore  seen  in  the  same 
part  of  the  heavens  with  that  orb.  In  these  last  positions  they 
are  beyond  the  sun,  which  is  now  between  them  and  the  earth. 
This  is  called  their  superior  conjunction.  Here  it  is  evident 
that  these  two  planets  must  appear  twice  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun,  in  each  revolution,  to  a spectator  on  the  earth  at  E ; 
but  they  can  never  appear  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  or,  in  other 
words,  they  can  never  be  seen  in  the  east  immediately  after  the 
sun  has  set  in  the  west,  as  is  the  case  with  Mars,  which  may  be 
seen  at  G when  the  sun  appears  at  B , in  the  opposite  direction. 
All  which  appearances  are  exactly  correspondent  with  observa- 
tion, but  could  never  take  place  if  the  earth  were  the  centre  of 
their  motions. 

2.  The  greatest  elongation , or  distance,  of  Mercury,  from  the 
sun,  is  twenty-nine  degrees,  and  that  of  Venus,  about  forty- 
seven  degrees,  which  answers  exactly  to  observation,  and  to  the 
positions  and  distances  assigned  them  in  the  system;  but  if  they 
moved  round  the  earth  as  a centre,  they  would  sometimes  be 
seen  180  degrees  from  the  sun,  or  in  opposition  to  him.  But 
they  have  never  been  seen  in  such  a position  by  any  observer, 
either  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  nor  at  greater  distances  from 
the  sun  than  those  now  specified.  It  is  evident,  from  the  figure, 
that  when  Venus  is  at  D , the  point  of  its  greatest  elongation,  it 
will  be  seen  at  a , in  the  direction  of  E a , which  forms  an  angle 
of  forty-seven  degrees  with  the  line  EB , or  the  direction  of  the 
sun  as  seen  from  the  earth.  In  like  manner,  Mercury,  when  at 
its  greatest  elongation,  at  B , will  be  seen  at  e , which  forms  a 
less  angle  than  the  former  with  the  line  of  direction  in  which 
the  sun  is  seen.  Hence  it  is  that  Mercury  is  so  rarely  seen, 
and  Venus  only  at  certain  times  of  the  year;  whereas,  were  the 
earth  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  planetary  orbits,  these  planets 
would  be  seen  in  all  positions  and  distances  from  the  sun,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  moon  appears. 

3.  The  planets  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  all  the 
other  superior  planets,  have  each  their  conjunctions  and  opposi- 
tions to  the  sun,  alternate  and  successively,  which  could  not  be 
unless  their  orbits  were  exterior  to  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  Thus, 


PHASES  OF  MERCURY  AND  VENUS.  45 

from  the  earth  at  E , Mars  will  appear  in  conjunction  with  the 
sun  at  B,  and  in  opposition  at  G ; that  is,  in  a part  of  the 
heavens  180  degrees  distant  from  the  sun,  or  directly  opposite 
to  him;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  the  planets  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Mars,  which  proves  that  they  are  all  situated  in 
orbits  which  include  the  orbit  of  the  earth. 

4.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  planets  in  the  system,  as  for- 
merly stated,  they  will  all  be  sometimes  much  nearer  to  the 
earth  than  at  other  times;  and,  consequently,  their  brightness 
and  splendour,  and  likewise  their  apparent  diameters , will  be 
proportionably  greater  at  one  time  than  at  another.  This  cor- 
responds with  every  day’s  observation.  Thus,  the  apparent 
diameter  of  Venus,  when  greatest,  is  fifty-eight  seconds,  and 
when  least,  about  ten  seconds ; of  Mars,  when  greatest,  about 
twenty-five  seconds;  and  when  least,  not  above  four  or  five 
seconds;  so  that  in  one  part  of  his  orbit  he  is  five  times  nearer 
to  the  earth  than  at  the  opposite  part,  and,  consequently,  appears 
twenty-five  times  larger  in  surface.  Thus,  when  Mars  is  in 
the  point  G , in  opposition  to  the  sun,  he  is  the  whole  diameter 
of  the  earth’s  orbit,  or  190  millions  of  miles  nearer  us  than 
when  he  is  in  conjunction,  in  the  point  B . In  the  one  case,  he 
is  only  50  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  earth,  while  in  the 
other  he  is  no  less  than  240  millions  of  miles;  and  his  apparent 
magnitude  varies  accordingly.  But  according  to  the  system 
which  places  the  earth  in  the  centre,  the  apparent  magnitude  of 
Mars,  and  of  all  the  other  planets,  should  always  be  equal,  in 
whatever  points  of  their  orbits  they  may  be  situated. 

5.  When  the  planets  are  viewed- through  good  telescopes,  they 
appear  with  different  phases  ; that  is,  with  different  parts  of  their 
bodies  enlightened.  Thus,  Mars  sometimes  appears  round,  or 
with  a full  enlightened  face;  and  at  other  times  he  presents  a 
gibbous  phase,  like  that  of  the  moon  three  or  four  days  before 
the  full.  Venus  presents  all  the  different  phases  of  the  moon, 
appearing  sometimes  with  a gibbous  phase,  sometimes  like  a half- 
moon, and  at  other  times  like  a slender  crescent.  Thus,  at  F, 
her  dark  side  is  turned  to  the  earth,  and  she  is  consequently  in- 
visible, unless  she  happen  to  pass  across  the  disk  of  the  sun, 
when  she  appears  like  a round  black  spot  on  the  surface  of  that 
luminary.  At  Z>,  she  appears  like  a crescent;  at  A , like  a 
half-moon,  because  only  the  one  half  of  her  enlightened  side  is 
turned  towards  the  earth;  and  at  F,  she  presents  a gibbous 
phase.  When  Copernicus  first  proposed  his  system,  it  was  one 


46 


PHASES  OF  MERCURY  AND  VENUS. 


of  the  strongest  objections  which  his  adversaries  brought  against 
it,  and  by  which  they  supposed  they  had  completely  confuted 
him — namely,  that  “if  his  hypothesis  were  true,  Venus  and 
Mercury  must  vary  their  phases,  like  the  moon,  but  that  they 
constantly  appeared  round.”  Copernicus  at  once  admitted  that 
these  consequences  were  justly  drawn;  and  he  attributed  the 
cause  of  their  round  appearances  to  the  structure  of  our  eyes, 
to  the  distance  of  the  objects,  and  to  those  radiating  crowns 
which  hinder  us  from  judging  either  of  the  size  or  the  exact 
form  of  the  stars  and  planets;  and  he  is  said  to  have  prophesied, 
that  one  day  or  other  these  various  phases  would  be  discovered; 
and  little  more  than  half  a century  intervened,  when  the  teles- 
cope, (which  was  unknown  in  the  time  of  Copernicus,)  in  the 
hands  of  Galileo,  determined  to  a certainty  the  matter  in  dispute, 
and  confirmed  the  prediction  of  that  eminent  astronomer.  How 
great,  may  we  suppose,  would  have  been  the  transport  of  that 
illustrious  man  had  a telescope  been  put  into  his  hands,  and  had 
he  seen,  as  we  now  do,  that  Venus,  when  she  appears  most  bril- 
liant, exhibits,  in  reality,  the  form  of  a crescent!  so  that  this 
formidable  objection  to  the  truth  of  his  system  has  now  become 
one  of  the  strongest  and  most  palpable  demonstrations  of  the 
reality  of  that  arrangement  which  has  placed  the  sun  in  the 
centre,  and  set  the  earth  in  motion  between  Mars  and  Venus. 

6.  All  the  planets  in  their  motions  are  seen  sometimes  to  move 
direct ; sometimes  retrograde ; and  at  other  times  to  remain 
stationary , without  any  apparent  motion : in  other  words,  in  one 
part  of  their  course  they  appear  to  move  to  the  east;  in  another 
part,  to  the  west ; and  at  certain  points  of  their  orbit  they  appear 
fixed  for  some  time  in  the  same  position.  Thus,  Venus,  when 
she  passes  from  her  greatest  elongation  westward,  at  X,  to  her 
greatest  elongation  eastward,  at  D , through  the  arch  LCKFAD, 
will  appear  direct  in  motion,  or  from  west  to  east;  but  as  she  passes 
from  D to  X,  through  the  arch  D VL , she  will  appear  retrograde , 
or  as  if  she  were  moving  from  east  to  west.  When  she  is  in  those 
parts  of  her  orbit  most  distant  from  the  sun,  as  at  D and  X,  she 
will  appear  for  some  time  stationary,  because  the  tangent  line, 
or  visual  ray,  appears  to  coincide  for  some  time  with  the  orbit 
of  the  planet, — just  as  a ship  at  a great  distance,  when  moving 
directly  towards  the  eye  in  the  line  of  vision,  appears  for  a little 
time  to  make  no  progress.  All  these  apparent  diversities  of 
motion  are  necessary  results  of  the  Copernican  system,  and  they 


COMPLEXITY  OF  APPARENT  MOTIONS.  47 

coincide  with  the  most  accurate  observations;  but  they  are 
altogether  inexplicable  on  any  other  hypothesis. 

7.  The  planets  Mercury  and  Venus,  in  their  superior  con- 
junctions with  the  sun,  as  at  jy  and  K,  are  sometimes  hid  behind 
the  sun’s  body;  which  could  never  happen  on  the  Ptolemaic 
hypothesis,  because  in  it  the  orbit  of  the  sun  is  supposed  to  bo 
exterior  to  the  orbits  of  these  two  planets. 

8.  The  times  in  which  these  conjunctions,  oppositions,  direst 
and  retrograde  motions,  and  stationary  aspects  of  the  planets 
happen,  are  not  such  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth  were  at  rest 
in  its  orbit;  but  precisely  such,  if  the  earth  move,  and  all  the 
other  planets,  in  the  periods  assigned  them.  Thus,  suppose 
Venus  at  any  time  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  at  V ; were  the 
earth  at  rest  in  E , the  next  conjunction  of  the  same  kind  would 
happen  again  when  Venus  had  made  just  one  revolution — that 
is,  in  224  days.  But  this  is  contrary  to  experience;  for  a much 
longer  time  is  found  to  intervene  between  two  conjunctions  of 
the  same  kind,  as  must  be,  if  we  suppose  the  earth  to  have  a 
motion  in  the  same  direction.  For,  when  Venus  comes  to  the 
point  F,  the  earth  will  have  passed  in  that  time  from  E to  some 
other  part  of  its  orbit,  and  from  this  part  still  keeps  moving  on 
till  Venus  overtakes  it,  and  gets  again  between  it  and  the  sun. 
The  period  which  Venus  will  take  before  she  overtakes  the 
earth,  and  comes  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  is  found  as 
follows: — The  daily  mean  motion  of  the  earth  is  fifty-nine 
minutes  eight  seconds,  (which  is  the  same  as  the  apparent  mean 
motion  of  the  sun,)  and  the  daily  mean  motion  of  Venus  is  one 
degree,  thirty-six  minutes,  eight- seconds.  The  difference  of 
these  mean  motions  is  thirty-seven  minutes.  Therefore,  as  37'  : 
is  to  the  number  of  minutes  in  the  whole  circle  of  360  degrees 
— namely,  2 1 ,600' : : so  is  one  day  : to  583  days,  18f  hours, 
which  is  the  time  between  two  conjunctions  of  the  same  kind,  or 
one  year  and  a little  more  than  seven  months,  which  is  some- 
what more  than  two  and  a half  revolutions*of  Venus,  and  which 
perfectly  agrees  with  the  most  accurate  observations. 

In  the  last  place,  if  wTe  were  to  suppose  the  earth  at  rest  in 
the  centre  of  the  planetary  system,  the  motions  of  all  the  planets 
would  present  a scene  of  inextricable  confusion.  They  would 
appear  so  irregular  and  anomalous,  that  no  rational  being  would 
ever  suppose  they  could  be  the  contrivances  of  an  all-wise 
Being,  possessed  of  every  perfection.  This  will  appear  at  once 
by  casting  the  eye  on  figure  7, 


48 


COMPLEXITY  OF  APPARENT  MOTIONS. 


Fig.  7. 


which  represents  the  apparent  motion  of  the  planet  Mercury,  as 
seen  from  the  earth,  from  the  year  1708  to  1715,  as  originally 
delineated  by  the  celebrated  astronomer  Cassini,  and  published 
in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.  Here  the 
motion  of  this  planet  appears  to  describe  a complicated  curve,  or 
a series  of  loops  or  spirals  running  into  each  other,  instead  of  a 
regular  circular  motion  in  an  orbit;  and  such  irregular  curves 
must  be  the  real  motion  of  the  planet,  to  account  for  all  its 
appearances,  if  the  earth  were  considered  as  remaining  fixed  in 
the  centre  of  its  motion.  On  each  side  of  the  loops  in  the  figure, 
it  appears  stationary;  in  that  part  of  the  loop  next  the  earth  it 
appears  retrograde,  and  in  all  the  rest  of  the  path  which  seems 
to  stretch  far  away  from  the  earth,  it  appears  direct,  till  its 
course  again  appears  to  run  into  a loop.  Let  the  reader  trace 
the  whole  of  the  curve  here  delineated,  and  then  ask  himself 
whether  such  motions  can  possibly  be  real,  or  the  contrivances 
of  Infinite  Wisdom?  The  motions  of  Venus,  and  of  all  the 
superior  planets,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  present  similar  curves 


SUBLIMITY  OF  THE  EARTH’S  MOTION. 


49 


and  anomalies.  Now,  it  is  a fact  that  when  the  earth  is  con- 
sidered as  moving  round  the  sun  in  a year,  between  the  orbits 
of  Venus  and  Mars,  all  these  apparent  irregularities  are  com- 
pletely accounted  for,  by  the  combination  of  motions  produced 
by  our  continual  change  of  position,  in  consequence  of  the  earth’s 
progress  in  its  annual  orbit;  and  thus  the  movements  of  all  the 
planets  are  reduced  to  perfect  harmony  and  order. 

Such  is  a brief  summary  of  the  leading  proofs  which  may  be 
brought  forward  to  establish  the  fact  of  the  annual  motion  of  the 
earth  round  the  sun.  They  all  converge  towards  the  same 
point,  and  hang  together  in  perfect  harmony.  It  is  next  to 
impossible  that  such  a combination  of  arguments  could  be  found 
to  prove  a false  position.  When  thoroughly  understood,  and 
calmly  considered,  they  are  calculated  to  produce  on  the  mind 
of  every  unbiassed  inquirer  as  strong  a conviction  of  the  point 
in  question,  as  if,  from  a fixed  position  in  the  heavens,  we 
actually  beheld  the  earth  and  all  its  population  sweeping  along 
through  the  ethereal  spaces  with  the  velocity  of  sixty-eight 
thousand  miles  every  hour.  These  arguments  are  plain  and 
easy  to  be  understood,  if  the  least  attention  be  bestowed.  Most 
of  them  require  nothing  more  than  common  observation,  or,  in 
other  words,  common  sense,  in  order  to  understand  and  appre- 
ciate them;  and  he  who  will  not  give  himself  the  trouble  to 
weigh  them  with  attention,  must  be  contented  to  remain  in 
ignorance.  I have  stated  them  with  more  particularity  than  is 
generally  done  in  elementary  books  on  this  subject,  because  they 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  astronomical  science,  and  of  all  our 
views  of  the  amplitude  and  order" of  the  universe;  and  because 
many  profess  to  believe  in  the  motion  of  the  earth  merely  on  the 
authority  of  others,  without  examining  the  grounds  of  their 
belief,  and  consequently  are  never  fully  and  rationally  convinced 
of  the  important  position  to  which  we  have  adverted. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  presents  before  us  a most  sublime 
and  august  object  of  contemplation . We  wonder  at  beholding 
a steam  carriage,  with  all  its  apparatus  of  wagons  and  passen- 
gers, carried  forward  on  a railway  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an 
hour,  or  a balloon  sweeping  through  the  atmosphere  with  a 
velocity  of  sixty  miles  in  the  same  time.  Our  admiration  would 
be  raised  still  higher,  should  we  behold  Mount  Etna,  with  its 
seventy  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  and  its  hundred  thousand 
inhabitants,  detached  from  its  foundations,  carried  aloft  through 
the  air,  pouring  forth  torrents  of  red-hot  lava,  and  impelled  to 

E 


50 


MAGNIFICENT  SCENES  OF  MOTION. 


the  continent  of  America  in  the  space  of  half  an  hour.  But 
such  an  object,  grand  and  astonishing  as  it  would  be,  could  con- 
vey no  adequate  idea  of  the  grandeur  of  such  a body  as  the  earth 
flying  through  the  voids  of  space  in  its  course  round  the  sun. 
Mount  Etna,  indeed,  contains  a mass  of  matter  equal  to  more 
than  800  cubical  miles,  but  the  earth  comprises  an  extent  of 
more  than  263,000,000,000  of  solid  miles,  and  consequently  is 
more  than  three  hundred  millions  of  times  larger  than  Etna,  and 
of  a much  greater  density.  The  comparative  size  of  this  moun- 
tain to  the  earth  may  be  apprehended  by  conceiving  three  hun- 
dred millions  of  guineas  laid  in  a straight  line,  which  would 
extend  4700  miles,  or  from  London  to  the  equator,  or  to  South 
America.  The  whole  line  of  guineas  throughout  this  vast  ex- 
tent would  represent  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  and  a single  guinea, 
which  is  only  about  an  inch  in  extent,  would  represent  the  size 
of  Etna,  compared  with  that  of  the  earth.  Again,  Etna,  in 
moving  from  its  present  situation  to  America  in  half  an  hour, 
would  move  only  at  the  rate  of  130  miles  in  a minute;  while  the 
earth  in  its  annual  course  flies  with  a velocity  of  more  than 
1130  miles  in  the  same  space  of  time,  or  about  nine  times  that 
velocity. 

How  august,  then,  and  overpowering,  the  idea,  that  during 
every  pulse  that  beats  within  us  we  are  carried  nearly  twenty 
miles  from  that  portion  of  absolute  space  we  occupied  before! 
that  during  the  seven  hours  we  repose  in  sleep,  we,  and  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  world,  are  transported  470,000  miles  through 
the  depths  of  space;  that  during  the  time  it  would  take  in  read- 
ing deliberately  from  the  beginning  of  the  last  paragraph  to  the 
present  sentence,  we  have  been  carried  forward  with  the  earth’s 
motion  more  than  4500  miles;  and  that,  in  the  course  of  the 
few  minutes  we  spend  in  walking  a mile,  we  are  conveyed 
through  a portion  of  absolute  space  to  the  extent  of  more  than 
18,000  miles.  What  an  astonishing  idea  does  such  a motion 
convey  of  the  energies  of  the  Almighty  Creator,  especially 
when  we  consider  that  thousands  of  rolling  worlds,  some  of  them 
immensely  larger  than  our  globe,  are  impelled  with  similar  velo- 
cities, and  have  for  many  centuries  past  been  running  without 
intermission  their  destined  rounds!  Here,  then,  we  have  a 
magnificent  scene  presented  to  view,  far  more  wonderful  than 
all  the  enchanted  palaces  rising  and  vanishing  at  the  stroke  of 
the  magician’s  rod,  or  all  the  scenes  which  the  human  imagina- 
tion has  ever  created,  or  the  tales  of  romance  have  recorded, 


THE  PLANET  MERCURY. 


51 


which  may  serve  to  occupy  our  mental  contemplation  when  we 
feel  ennui , or  are  at  a loss  for  subjects  of  amusement  or  reflec- 
tion. We  may  view  in  imagination  this  ponderous  globe  on 
which  we  reside,  with  all  its  load  of  continents,  islands,  oceans, 
and  its  millions  of  population,  wheeling  its  course  through  the 
heavens  at  a rate  of  motion,  every  day , exceeding  1,600,000 
miles, — we  may  transport  ourselves  to  distant  regions,  and  con- 
template globes  far  more  magnificent,  moving  with  similar  or 
even  greater  velocities, — we  may  wing  our  flight  to  the  starry 
firmament,  where  worlds  unnumbered  run  their  ample  rounds, 
where  suns  revolve  around  suns,  and  systems  around  systems, 
and  the  whole  around  the  throne  of  the  Eternal, — till,  over- 
powered with  the  immensity  of  space  and  motion,  we  fall  down 
with  reverence,  and  worship  him  who  presides  over  all  the 
departments  of  universal  nature,  “ who  created  all  worlds,  and 
for  whose  pleasure  they  are  and  were  created.” 


CHAPTEE  III. 

ON  THE  MAGNITUDES,  MOTIONS,  AND  OTHER  PHENOMENA, 
OF  THE  BODIES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

In  the  elucidation  of  this  subject,  I shall,  in  the  first  place,  pre- 
sent a few  sketches  of  the  magnitudes,  motions,  and  other  phe- 
nomena, of  the  primary  planets  belonging  to  the  solar  system. 
These  planets,  as  formerly  stated,  are — Mercury,  Yenus,  Mars, 
Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  which 
are  here  mentioned  in  the  order  of  their  distance  from  the  sun. 

In  this  order  I shall  proceed  to  give  a few  descriptions  of  the 
principal  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  each 
planet. 

I.  THE  PLANET  MERCURY. 

This  planet  is  the  nearest  to  the  sun  of  any  that  have  yet 
been  discovered,  although  a space  of  no  less  than  thirty-seven 
millions  of  miles  intervenes  between  Mercury  and  the  central 
luminary.  Within  this  immense  space,  several  planets  may 
revolve,  though  they  may  never  be  detected  by  us,  on  account 

QF  Ilk  LSB* 


52 


DIFFICULTY  OF  PERCEIVING  MERCURY. 


of  their  proximity  to  the  sun.  To  an  inhabitant  of  Mercury, 
such  planets,  if  any  exist,  may  be  as  distinctly  visible  as  Venus 
and  Mercury  are  to  us;  because  they  will  appear,  in  certain 
parts  of  their  course,  at  a much  greater  elongation  from  the  sun 
than  they  can  do  to  us.  This  planet,  on  account  of  its  moving 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sun,  is  seldom  noticed  by  a common 
observer.  It  is  only  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  about  the 
period  of  its  greatest  elongation  from  the  sun,  which  is  some- 
times only  about  16°  or  17°,  and  never  exceeds  29°.  These 
elongations  happen,  at  an  average,  about  six  or  seven  times 
every  year;  about  three  times  when  the  planet  is  eastward  of 
the  sun,  and  three  times  when  it  is  to  the  westward.  This 
planet,  therefore,  can  only  be  seen  by  the  unassisted  eye  for  a 
few  days,  about  these  periods,  either  in  the  morning,  a little 
before  sunrise,  or  in  the  evening,  a little  after  sunset.  As  it  is 
sometimes  not  above  16°,  even  at  its  greatest  elongation,  from 
the  point  of  sunrise  or  sunset,  and  is  likewise  very  near  the 
horizon;  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  distinguish  it  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  at  all  other  times  it  is  generally  imperceptible 
without  a telescope.  It  is  said  that  the  celebrated  astronomer, 
Copernicus,  had  never  an  opportunity  of  seeing  this  planet 
during  the  whole  course  of  his  life.  I have  seen  Mercury  three 
or  four  times  with  the  naked  eye,  and  pretty  frequently  with  a 
telescope.  With  a magnifying  power  of  150  times,  I have  seen 
it  about  the  time  of  its  greatest  elongation,  more  than  half  an 
hour  after  sunrise,  when  it  appeared  like  a small  brilliant  half 
moon ; but  no  spots  could  be  discovered  upon  it.  To  the  naked 
eye,  when  it  is  placed  in  a favourable  position,  it  appears  with  a 
brilliant  white  light,  like  that  of  Venus,  but  much  smaller  and 
less  conspicuous.  The  best  mode  of  detecting  it  is  by  means  of 
an  equatorial  telescope,  which,  by  a slight  calculation  and  the 
help  of  an  ephemeris,  may  be  directed  to  the  precise  point  of  the 
heavens  where  it  is  situated.  The  most  favourable  seasons  of 
the  year  for  observing  it  are,  when  its  greatest  elongations 
happen  in  the  months  of  March  or  April,  and  in  August  or 
September.  In  winter,  it  is  not  easily  perceived,  on  account  of 
its  very  low  altitude  above  the  horizon  at  sunrise  and  sunset; 
and,  in  summer,  the  long  twilight  prevents  our  perception  of 
any  small  object  in  the  heavens.  From  the  planets  Saturn  and 
Uranus,  Mercury  would  be  altogether  invisible,  being  com- 
pletely immersed  in  the  splendour  of  the  solar  rays;  so  that  an 
inhabitant  of  these  planets  would  never  know  that  such  a body 


TRANSITS  OF  MERCURY. 


53 


existed  in  the  universe,  unless  they  should  happen  to  see  it 
when  it  passed,  like  a small  dark  point,  across  the  disk  of  the 
sun. 

Mercury  revolves  around  the  sun  in  the  space  of  eighty-seven 
days  twenty-three  hours,  which  is  the  length  of  its  year;  but 
the  time  from  one  conjunction  to  the  same  conjunction  again,  is 
about  116  days;  for  as  the  earth  has  moved  about  a fourth  part 
of  its  revolution  during  this  period,  it  requires  nearly  thirty 
days  before  Mercury  overtakes  it,  so  as  to  be  in  a line  with  the 
sun.  During  this  period,  of  about  116  days,  it  passes  through 
all  the  phases  of  the  moon,  sometimes  presenting  a gibbous 
phase,  sometimes  that  of  a half  moon,  and  at  other  times  the 
form  of  a crescent, — which  phases  and  other  particulars  will  be 
more  particularly  explained  in  the  description  I shall  give  of  the 
planet  Venus.  Mercury,  at  different  times,  makes  a transit 
across  the  sun’s  disk;  and  as  its  dark  side  is  then  turned  to  the 
earth,  it  will  appear  like  a round  spot  upon  the  face  of  the  sun; 
and  when  it  passes  near  the  centre  of  the  sun,  it  will  appear  for 
the  space  of  from  five  to  seven  hours  on  the  surface  of  that  orb. 
Its  last  transit  happened  on  the  8th  of  May,  1845,  which  was 
visible  in  Great  Britain.  The  next  transits  to  the  end  of  the 
present  century  are  as  follow : — 

hours,  minutes. 


1848,  November  9th  1 38  p.m. 

1861,  November  12th 7 20  p.m. 

1868,  November  5th  6 44  a.m. 

1878,  May  6th  6 38  p.m. 

1881,  November  8th  0 40  a.m. 

1891,  May  10th  2 45  a.m. 

1894,  November  10th .’. 6 17  p.m. 


The  time  stated  in  the  above  table  is  the  mean  time  of  con- 
junction at  Greenwich,  or  nearly  the  middle  of  the  transit;  so  that 
in  whatever  part  of  the  world  the  sun  is  risen  at  that  time,  the 
transit  will  be  visible,  if  no  clouds  interpose.  The  next  transit, 
in  1848,  will  be  partly  visible  in  Britain.* 

Few  discoveries  have  been  made  on  the  surface  of  this  planet 
by  means  of  the  telescope,  owing  to  the  dazzling  splendour  of 
its  rays,  which  prevents  the  telescope  from  presenting  a well- 
defined  image  of  its  disk;  owing,  likewise,  to  the  short  interval 
during  which  observations  can  be  made,  and  particularly,  to  its 
proximity  to  the  horizon,  and  the  undulating  vapours  through 

* This  transit  will  commence  about  eleven  in  the  forenoon,  and  end  at 
twenty-seven  minutes  after  four  in  the  afternoon — nine  minutes  after  sunset. 


54 


LIGHT  AND  SPLENDOUR  OF  MERCURY. 


which  it  is  then  viewed.  That  unwearied  observer  of  the  heavens, 
Sir  William  Herschel,  although  he  frequently  viewed  this  planet 
with  magnifying  powers  of  200  and  300  times,  could  perceive 
no  spots  or  any  other  phenomenon,  on  its  disk,  from  which  any 
conclusions  could  be  deduced  respecting  its  peculiar  constitution, 
or  the  period  of  its  rotation.  Mr.  Schroeter,  an  eminent  Ger- 
man astronomer,  however,  appears  to  have  been  more  successful. 
This  gentleman  has  long  been  a careful  observer  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  planetary  system,  by  means  of  telescopes  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  has  contributed  not  a few  interesting  facts  to 
astronomical  science.  He  assures  us  that  he  has  seen  not  only 
spots,  but  even  mountains  on  the  surface  of  Mercury,  and  that  he 
succeeded  in  ascertaining  the  altitude  of  two  of  these  mountains. 
One  of  them  he  found  to  be  little  more  than  1000  toises  in  height, 
or  about  an  English  mile  and  372  yards.  The  other  measured 
8900  toises,  or  ten  miles  and  1378  yards,  which  is  more  than 
four  times  higher  than  Mount  Etna,  or  the  peak  of  Teneriffe. 
The  highest  mountains  are  said  to  be  situated  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  of  this  planet.  The  same  observer  informs  us,  that, 
by  examining  the  variation  in  the  daily  appearance  of  the  horns 
or  cusps  of  this  planet,  when  it  appeared  of  a crescent  form,  he 
found  the  period  of  its  diurnal  rotation  round  its  axis  to  be 
twenty-four  hours,  five  minutes,  and  twenty-eight  seconds.  But 
these  deductions  require  still  to  be  confirmed  by  future  obser- 
vations. 

The  light,  or  the  intensity  of  solar  radiation  which  falls  on  this 
planet,  is  nearly  seven  times  greater  than  what  falls  upon  the 
earth ; for  the  proportion  of  their  distances  from  the  sun  is  nearly 
as  three  to  eight,  and  the  quantity  of  light  diffused  from  a 
luminous  body  is  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  that  body. 
The  square  of  3 is  9,  and  the  square  of  8,  64,  which,  divided  by 
9,  produces  a quotient  of  7-^,  which  nearly  expresses  the  intensity 
of  light  on  Mercury,  compared  with  that  on  the  earth.  Or,  more 
accurately  thus: — Mercury  is  36,880,000  of  miles  from  the  sun, 
the  square  of  which  is  1,360,134,400,000,000:  the  earth  is  dis- 
tant 95,000,000,  the  square  of  which  is  9,025,000,000,000,000. 
Divide  this  last  square  by  the  first,  and  the  quotient  is  about  6§ , 
which  is  very  nearly  the  proportion  of  light  on  this  planet.  As 
the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  is  likewise  in  proportion  to  the 
square  of  the  distance,  the  inhabitants  of  this  planet  will  behold  in 
their  sky  a luminous  orb,  giving  light  by  day,  nearly  seven  times 
larger  than  the  sun  appears  to  us;  and  every  object  on  its  sur- 


LIGHT  AND  SPLENDOUR  OF  MERCURY. 


55 


face  will  be  illuminated  with  a brilliancy  seven  times  greater 
than  the  objects  around  us  in  a fine  summer’s  day.  Such  a 
brilliancy  of  lustre  on  every  object  would  completely  dazzle  our 
eyes  in  their  present  state  of  organization;  but,  in  every  such 
case,  we  are  bound  to  believe  that  the  organs  of  vision  of  the 
inhabitants  of  any  world  are  exactly  adapted  to  the  sphere 
they  occupy  in  the  system  to  which  they  belong.  Were  we 
transported  to  such  a luminous  world  as  Mercury,  we  could 
perceive  every  object  with  the  same  ease  and  distinctness  we 
now  do,  provided  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  instead  of  being  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  as  it  now  is,  were  contracted  to 
the  size  of  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch.  In  consequence  of  the 
splendour  which  is  reflected  from  every  object  on  this  planet,  it 
is  likely  that  the  whole  scenery  of  nature  will  assume  a most 
glorious  and  magnificent  aspect,  and  that  the  colours  depicted 
on  the  various  parts  of  the  scenery  of  that  world  will  be  much 
more  vivid  and  splendid  than  they  appear  on  the  scenery  of  our 
terrestrial  mansion;  and  since  it  appears  highly  probable  that 
there  are  elevated  mountains  on  this  planet,  if  they  be  adorned 
with  a diversity  of  colour,  and  of  rural  and  artificial  objects, 
they  must  present  to  the  beholder  a most  beautiful,  magnificent, 
and  sublime  appearance.  The  following  figures  will  present  to 
the  eye  a comparative  view  of  the  apparent  size  of  the  sun,  as 
beheld  from  Mercury  and  from  the  earth. 


Fig.  8. 


56 


TEMPERATURE  OF  MERCURY. 


While  the  intensity  of  the  solar  light  on  this  planet  is  about 
seven  times  greater  than  on  the  earth,  the  light  on  the  surface 
of  Uranus,  the  most  distant  planet  of  the  system,  is  360  times 
less  than  that  on  the  earth;  for  the  square  of  the  earth’s  distance, 
as  formerly  stated,  is  9,025,000,000,000,000,  and  the  square  of 
the  distance  of  Uranus  from  the  sun,  1,800,000,000  of  miles,  i3 
3,240,000,000,000,000,000,  which,  divided  by  the  former  num- 
ber, gives  a quotient  of  359  and  a fraction,  or  in  round  numbers 
360;  the  number  of  times  that  the  light  on  the  earth  exceeds 
that  on  Uranus.  Yet  we  find  that  the  light  reflectecf  from  that 
distant  planet,  after  passing  1,800,000,000  of  miles  from  the 
body  of  the  sun,  and  returning  again  by  reflection  1,700,000,000 
of  miles  to  the  earth,  is  visible  through  our  telescopes,  and  even 
sometimes  to  the  naked  eye.  Thus,  it  appears  that  the  inten- 
sity of  light  at  the  two  extremes  of  the  solar  system  is  in  the 
proportion  of  2400  to  1;  for  360  x6f= 2400,  the  number  of 
times  that  the  quantity  of  light  on  Mercury  exceeds  that  on 
Uranus.  But,  we  may  rest  assured  from  what  we  know  of  the 
plans  of  Divine  Wisdom,  that  the  eyes  of  organical  intelligences, 
both  at  the  extremes  and  in  all  the  intermediate  spaces  of  the 
system,  are  exactly  adapted  to  the  sphere  they  occupy,  and  the 
quantity  of  light  they  receive  from  the  central  luminary. 

In  regard  to  the  temperature  of  Mercury,  if  the  intensity  of 
heat  were  supposed  to  be  governed  by  the  same  law  as  the  in- 
tensity of  light,  the  heat  in  this  planet  would  of  course  be  nearly 
seven  times  greater  than  on  the  earth.  Supposing  the  average 
temperature  of  our  globe  to  be  fifty  degrees  of  Fahrenheit’s 
thermometer,  the  average  temperature  on  Mercury  would  be  333 
degrees,  or  121  degrees  above  the  heat  of  boiling  water, — a 
degree  of  heat  sufficient  to  melt  sulphur,  to  make  nitrous  acid 
boil,  and  to  dissipate  into  vapour  every  volatile  compound.  But 
we  have  no  reason  to  conclude  that  the  degree  of  sensible  heat 
on  any  planet  is  in  an  inverse  proportion  to  its  distance  from 
the  sun.  We  have  instances  of  the  contrary  on  our  own  globe. 
On  the  top  of  the  highest  range  of  the  Andes,  in  South  Ame- 
rica, there  is  an  intense  cold  at  all  times,  and  their  summits  are 
covered  with  perpetual  snows,  while  in  the  plains  immediately 
adjacent,  the  inhabitants  feel  all  the  effects  of  the  scorching  rays 
of  a tropical  sun.  The  sun,  during  our  summer  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  is  more  than  three  millions  of  miles  further  from 
us  than  in  winter;  and  although  the  obliquity  of  his  rays  is 
partly  the  cause  of  the  cold  felt  in  winter,  when  he  is  nearest  us, 


POPULATION  OF  MERCURY. 


57 


yet  it  is  not  the  only  cause;  for  we  find  that  the  cold  in  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  is  more  intense  in  winter  than  in  Scot- 
land, although  the  sun  rises  from  ten  to  sixteen  degrees  higher 
above  the  horizon  in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter.  Besides 
we  find  that  the  heat  of  summer,  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
when  the  sun  is  nearest  to  the  earth , is  not  so  great  as  in  the 
summer  of  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
In  short,  did  heat  depend  chiefly  on  the  nearness  of  the  sun,  or 
the  obliquity  of  his  rays,  we  should  always  have  the  same 
degree  of  heat  or  cold  at  the  same  time  of  the  year,  in  an  uni- 
form circle;  which  experience  proves  to  be  contrary  to  fact. 
The  degree  of  heat,  therefore,  on  any  planet,  and  on  different 
portions  of  the  same  planet,  must  depend  in  part,  and  perhaps 
chiefly,  on  the  nature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  other  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  constitution  of  the  planet,  in  combi- 
nation with  the  influence  of  the  solar  rays.  These  rays  un- 
doubtedly produce  heat,  but  the  degree  of  its  intensity  will 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  substances  on  which  they  fall;  as 
we  find  that  the  same  degree  of  sensible  heat  is  not  felt  when 
they  fall  on  a piece  of  iron  or  marble,  as  when  they  fall  on  a 
piece  of  wood  or  flannel. 

Mercury  was  long  considered  as  the  smallest  primary  planet 
in  the  system;  but  the  four  new  planets  lately  discovered  be- 
tween the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter  are  found  to  be  smaller. 
Its  diameter  is  estimated  at  3200  miles,  and  consequently,  its 
surface  contains  above  32,000,000  of  square  miles,  and  its  solid 
contents  17,157,324,800,  or  more  than  seventeen  thousand  mil- 
lions of  solid  miles;  and  if  the  number  of  solid  miles  contained 
in  the  earth,  which  are  264,000,000,000,  be  divided  by  this 
sum,  the  quotient  will  be  somewhat  more  than  fifteen,  showing 
that  the  earth  is  above  fifteen  times  larger  than  Mercury.  Not- 
withstanding the  comparatively  diminutive  size  of  this  planet, 
it  is  capable  of  containing  a population  upon  its  surface  much 
greater  than  has  ever  been  supported  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
during  any  period  of  its  history.  In  making  an  estimate  on 
this  point,  I shall  take  the  population  of  England  as  a standard. 
England  contains  50,000  square  miles  of  surface,  and  14,000,000 
of  inhabitants,  which  is  280  inhabitants  for  every  square  mile. 
The  surface  of  Mercury  contains  32,000,000  of  square  miles, 
which  is  not  much  less  than  all  the  habitable  parts  of  our  globe. 
At  the  rate  of  population  now  stated,  it  is  therefore  sufficiently 
ample  to  contain  8,960,000,000,  or  eight  thousand  nine  hundred 


58 


QUANTITY  OF  MATTER  ETC.  OF  MERCURY. 


and  sixty  millions  of  inhabitants,  which  is  more  than  eleven 
times  the  present  population  of  our  globe.  And  although  the 
one-half  of  the  surface  of  this  planet  were  to  be  considered  as 
covered  with  water,  it  would  still  contain  nearly  six  times  the 
population  of  the  earth.  Hence  it  appears,  that  small  as  this 
planet  may  be  considered  when  compared  with  others,  and 
seldom  as  it  is  noticed  by  the  vulgar  eye,  it  in  all  probability 
holds  a far  more  distinguished  rank  in  the  intellectual  and  social 
system  under  the  moral  government  of  God,  than  this  terrestrial 
world  of  which  we  are  so  proud,  and  all  the  living  beings  which 
traverse  its  surface. 

I shall  only  mention  further  the  following  particulars  in  re- 
ference to  this  planet.  In  its  revolution  round  the  sun,  its 
motion  is  swifter  than  that  of  any  other  planet  yet  discovered; 
it  is  no  less  than  at  the  rate  of  109,800  miles  every  hour,  at  an 
average,  although  in  some  parts  of  its  course  it  is  slower,  and  in 
other  parts  swifter,  since  it  moves  in  an  elliptical  orbit.  Of 
course  it  flies  1830  miles  every  minute,  and  more  than  thirty 
miles  during  every  beat  of  our  pulse.  The  density  of  this  planet 
is  found  by  certain  physical  calculations  and  investigations, 
founded  on  the  laws  of  universal  gravitation,  to  be  nine  times 
that  of  water,  or  equal  to  that  of  lead;  so  that  a ball  of  lead, 
3200  miles  in  diameter,  would  exactly  poise  the  planet  Mercury. 
This  density  is  greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  planets, 
and  nearly  twice  the  density  of  the  earth.  The  mass  of  this 
planet,  or  the  quantity  of  matter  it  contains,  when  compared 
with  the  mass  of  the  sun,  is,  according  to  La  Place,  as  1 to 
2,025,810,  or  about  the  two-millionth  part;  that  is,  it  would 
require  two  millions  of  globes  of  the  size  and  density  of  Mercury 
to  weigh  one  of  the  size  and  density  of  the  sun.  But  as  Mer- 
cury contains  a much  greater  quantity  of  matter  in  the  same 
bulk  than  the  sun,  in  point  of  size  it  would  require  22,000,000 
of  globes  of  the  bulk  of  Mercury  to  compose  a body  equal  to 
that  of  the  sun.  In  consequence  of  the  great  density  of  this 
planet,  bodies  will  have  a greater  weight  on  its  surface  than  on 
the  earth.  It  has  been  computed,  that  a body  weighing  one 
pound  on  the  earth’s  surface,  would  weigh  lib.  8J  drachms 
on  the  surface  of  Mercury.  If  the  centrifugal  force  of  this 
planet  were  suspended,  and  its  motion  in  a circular  course 
stopped,  it  would  fall  towards  the  sun,  as  a stone  when  thrown 
upwards  falls  to  the  ground,  by  the  force  of  gravity,  with  a 


THE  PLANET  VENUS. 


59 


velocity  continually  increasing  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  sun  diminished.  The  time  in  which  Mercury  or  any 
other  planet  would  fall  to  the  sun  by  the  centripetal  force,  or  the 
sun’s  attraction,  is  equal  to  its  periodic  time  divided  by  the  square 
root  of  thirty -two:  a principle  deduced  from  physical  and  ma- 
thematical investigation.  Mercury  would  therefore  fall  to  the 
sun  in  15  days,  13  hours;  Venus  in  39  days,  17  hours;  the  Earth 
in  64  days,  13  hours;  Mars  in  121  days,  10  hours;  Vesta  in 
205  days;  Ceres  in  297  days,  6 hours;  Pallas  in  301  days,  4 
hours;  Juno  in  354  days,  19  hours;  Jupiter  in  765  days, 
19  hours,  or  above  two  years;  Saturn  in  1901  days,  or  about 
five  years;  Uranus  in  5425  days,  or  nearly  fifteen  years;  and  the 
Moon  would  fall  to  the  earth,  were  its  centrifugal  force  destroyed, 
in  4 days,  20  hours. — Some  of  the  deductions  stated  above  may 
be  apt  to  startle  some  readers,  as  beyond  the  powers  of  limited 
intellects,  and  above  the  range  of  human  investigation.  The 
discoveries  of  Newton,  however,  have  now  taught  us  the  laws 
by  which  these  bodies  act  upon  one  another;  and  as  the  effects 
they  produce  depend  very  much  upon  the  quantities  of  matter 
they  contain,  by  observing  these  effects  we  are  able,  by  the  aid 
of  mathematical  reasoning,  to  determine  the  quantities  of  matter 
in  most  of  the  planets  with  considerable  certainty.  But  to  enter 
on  the  demonstrations  of  such  points  would  require  a consider- 
able share  of  attention,  and  of  mathematical  knowledge,  and 
would  probably  prove  tedious  and  uninteresting  to  the  general 
reader. 

Mercury  revolves  in  an  orbit  which  is  elliptical,  and  more 
eccentric  than  the  orbits  of  most  of  the  other  planets,  except 
Juno  and  Pallas.  Its  eccentricity , or  the  distance  of  the  sun 
from  the  centre  of  its  orbit,  is  above  7,000,000  of  miles.  The 
time  between  its  greatest  elongations  from  the  sun  varies  from 
106  to  130  days.  Its  orbit  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  or  the 
plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  in  an  angle  of  seven  degrees,  which 
is  more  .than  double  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  of  Venus. 

II.  OF  THE  PLANET  VENUS. 

Of  all  the  luminaries  of  heaven,  the  sun  and  moon  excepted, 
the  planet  Venus  is  the  most  conspicuous  and  splendid.  She 
appears  like  a brilliant  lamp  amidst  the  lesser  orbs  of  night,  and 
alternately  anticipates  the  morning  dawn  and  ushers  in  the 


60 


FORM  OF  THE  PLANETARY  ORBITS. 


evening  twilight.  When  she  is  to  the  westward  of  the  sun,  in 
winter,  she  cheers  our  mornings  with  her  vivid  light,  and  is  a 
prelude  of  the  near  approach  of  the  break  of  day  and  the  rising 
sun.  When  she  is  eastward  of  that  luminary,  her  light  bursts 
upon  us  after  sunset,  before  any  of  the  other  twinkling  orbs  of 
heaven  make  their  appearance ; and  she  discharges,  in  some 
measure,  the  functions  of  the  absent  moon.  The  brilliancy  of 
this  planet  has  been  noticed  in  all  ages,  and  has  been  frequently 
the  subject  of  description  and  admiration  both  by  shepherds  and 
by  poets.  The  Greek  poets  distinguished  it  by  the  name  of 
Phosphor , when  it  rose  before  the  sun,  and  Hesperus , when  it 
appeared  in  the  evening,  after  the  sun  retired ; and  it  is  now 
generally  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  Morning  and  Even- 
ing Star. 

“ Next  Mercury,  Venus  runs  her  larger  round, 

With  softer  beams  and  milder  glory  crown’d ; 

Friend  to  mankind,  she  glitters  from  afar, 

Now  the  bright  evening , now  the  morning , star, 

From  realms  remote  she  darts  her  pleasing  ray, 

Now  leading  on,  now  closing  up,  the  day: 

Term’d  Phosphor , when  her  morning  beams  she  yields, 

And  Hesp'ms  when  her  ray  the  evening  gilds.” 

Before  proceeding  to  a more  particular  description  of  this 
planet,  I shall  lay  before  the  reader  a brief  explanation  of  the 
nature  of  the  planetary  orbits,  as  I may  have  occasion  to  refer 
to  certain  particulars  connected  with  them  in  the  following 
descriptions.  All  the  planets  and  their  satellites  move  in  ellip- 
tical orbits,  more  or  less  eccentric.  The  following  figure  exhibits 
the  form  of  these  orbits. 


EXPLANATION  OF  ASTRONOMICAL  TERMS. 


61 


Fig.  9. 


The  figure  AD  B E represents  the  form  of  a planetary  orbit, 
which  is  that  of  an  oval  or  ellipse.  The  longer  diameter  is  A B ; 
the  shorter  diameter,  D E . The  two  points  F and  G are  called 
the  foci  of  the  ellipse,  around  which,  as  two  central  points,  the 
ellipse  is  formed.  The  sun  is  not  placed  in  C \ the  centre  of  the 
orbit,  but  at  F \ one  of  the  foci  of  the  ellipse.  When  the  planet, 
therefore,  is  at  A , it  is  nearest  the  sun,  and  is  said  to  be  in  its  peri- 
helion ; its  distance  from  the  sun  gradually  increases  till  it  reaches 
the  opposite  point,  B , when  it  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from 
the  sun,  and  is  said  to  be  in  its  aphelion ; when  it  arrives  at  the 
points  D and  E of  its  orbit,  it  is  said  to  be  at  the  mean  distance . 
The  line  A B , which  joins  the  perihelion  and  aphelion,  is  called 
the  line  of  the  apsides , and  also  the  greater  axis,  or  the  transverse 
axis,  of  the  orbit;  D E is  the  lesser , or  conjugate , axis;  F D9 
the  mean  distance  of  the  planet  from  the  sun ; F C,  or  G C,  the 
eccentricity  of  the  orbit,  or  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  its 
centre;  F is  the  lower  focus , or  that  in  which  the  sun  is  placed; 
G , the  higher  focus ; A , the  lower  apsis  ; and  B , the  higher 
apsis.  The  orbits  of  some  of  the  planets  are  more  elliptical 
than  others.  The  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of  Mercury  is  above 
7,000,000  of  miles ; that  is,  the  distance  from  the  point  F, 
where  the  sun  is  placed,  to  the  centre,  C9  measures  that  number 


62 


EXPLANATION  OF  ASTRONOMICAL  TERMS. 


of  miles;  while  the  eccentricity  of  Venus  is  only  about  490,000 
miles,  or  less  than  half  a million.  Most  of  the  planetary  orbits, 
except  those  of  some  of  the  new  planets,  approach  very  nearly 
to  the  circular  form. 

The  orbits  of  the  different  planets  do  not  all  lie  in  the  same 
plane,  as  they  appear  to  do  in  orreries,  and  in  the  representations 
generally  given  of  the  solar  system.  If  we  suppose  a plane  to 
pass  through  the  earth’s  orbit,  and  to  be  extended  in  every 
direction,  it  will  trace  a line  in  the  starry  heavens  which  is 
called  the  ecliptic , and  the  plane  itself  is  called  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  The  orbits  of  all  the  other  planets  do  not  lie  in  this 
plane,  one  half  of  each  orbit  rising  above  it,  while  the  other 
half  falls  below  it.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  supposing  a 
large  bowl,  or  concave  vessel,  to  be  nearly  filled  with  water; 
the  surface  of  the  water  will  trace  a circular  line  round  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bowl,  which  may  represent  the  ecliptic, 
while  the  surface  of  the  water  itself  is  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  the  bowl  is  the  one  half  of  the  concave  sky.  If  we  now 
immerse  in  the  bowl  a large  circular  ring,  obliquely,  so  that  one 
half  of  it  is  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  other  half 
below,  this  ring  will  represent  the  orbit  of  a planet  inclined  to 
the  ecliptic,  or  to  the  fluid  surface;  or  if  we  take  two  large 
rings,  or  hoops,  of  nearly  an  equal  size,  and  place  the  one  within 
the  other  obliquely,  so  that  the  half  of  the  one  hoop  may  be 
above,  and  the  opposite  half  below,  the  other  hoop,  it  will 
convey  an  idea  of  the  inclination  of  a planet’s  orbit  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic.  Thus,  if  the  circle  E F G H ( fig.  10)  represent 
the  plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  or  the  ecliptic,  the  circle  AB  C D 
may  represent  the  orbit  of  a planet  which  is  inclined  to  it, — the 
semi-circle  I AB  K being  below  the  level  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
the  other  half,  or  semi-circle,  being  above  it.  The  points  of 
intersection  at  I and  K , where  the  circles  cut  one  another,  are 
called  the  nodes . If  the  planet  is  moving  in  the  direction  A ID , 
the  point  /,  where  it  ascends  above  the  plane,  is  called  the 
ascending  node , and  the  opposite  point,  K,  the  descending  node. 
The  line  I K , which  joins  the  nodes,  is  called  the  line  of  the 
nodes , which,  in  the  different  planetary  orbits,  points  to  different 
parts  of  the  heavens.  It  is  when  Mercury  and  Venus  are  at,  or 
near,  the  line  of  the  nodes,  that  they  appear  to  make  a transit 
across  the  sun’s  disk.  The  moon’s  orbit  is  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  the  earth’s  orbit  in  an  angle  of  about  five  degrees;  and  it  is 
only  when  the  full  moon,  or  change,  happens  at  or  near  the 


EXPLANATION  OF  ASTRONOMICAL  TERMS. 


63 


Fig.  10. 


nodes  that  an  eclipse  can  take  place,  because  the  sun,  moon,  and 
earth  are  then  nearly  in  the  samp  plane;  at  all  other  times  of 
full  or  change,  the  shadow  of  the  moon  falls  either  above  or 
below  the  earth,  and  the  shadow  of  the  earth  either  above  or 
below  the  moon.  The  ecliptic  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into 
twelve  signs,  or  360  degrees,  which  have  received  the  following 
names  : — Aries , Taurus , Gemini , Cancer , Leo,  Virgo , Libra , 
Scorpio , Sagittarius , Capricornus , Aquarius , Pisces . Each  of 
these  signs  is  divided  into  thirty  equal  parts,  called  degrees ; 
each  degree  into  sixty  parts,  or  minutes ; each  minute  into  sixty 
parts,  or  seconds,  &c. 

Having  stated  the  above  definitions,  which  it  may  be  useful 
to  keep  in  mind  in  our  further  discussions,  I shall  proceed  to  a 
particular  description  of  the  motions  and  other  phenomena  of 
Yenus. 

General  appearances  and  apparent  Motions  oj  Venus . — This 
planet,  as  already  noticed,  is  only  seen  for  a short  time,  either 


64 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  VENUS. 


after  sunset  in  the  evening,  or  in  the  morning  before  sunrise- 
It  has  been  frequently  seen  by  means  of  the  telescope,  and 
sometimes  by  the  naked  eye,  at  noonday,  but  it  was  never  seen 
at  midnight,  as  all  the  other  planets  may  be,  with  the  exception 
of  Mercury.  It  never  appears  to  recede  further  from  the  sun 
than  forty-seven  degrees,  or  about  half  the  distance  from  the 
horizon  to  the  zenith.  Of  course,  it  was  never  seen  rising  in  the 
east,  or  even  shining  in  the  south,  after  the  sun  had  set  in  the 
west,  as  happens  in  regard  to  all  the  other  heavenly  bodies,  with 
the  exception  now  stated. 

When  this  planet,  after  emerging  from  the  solar  rays,  is  first 
seen  in  the  evening,  it  appears  very  near  the  horizon,  about 
twenty  minutes  after  sunset,  and  continues  visible  only  for  a 
very  short  time,  and  descends  below  the  horizon  not  far  from 
the  point  where  the  sun  went  down.  Every  succeeding  day  its 
apparent  distance  from  the  sun  increases;  it  rises  to  a higher 
elevation,  and  continues  a longer  time  above  the  horizon.  Thus 
it  appears  to  move  gradually  eastward  from  the  sun  for  four  or 
five  months,  till  it  arrives  at  the  point  of  its  greatest  elongation, 
which  seldom  exceeds  forty- seven  degrees,  when  it  appears  for 
some  time  stationary;  after  which,  it  appears  to  commence  a 
retrograde  motion,  from  east  to  west,  but  with  a much  greater 
degree  of  apparent  velocity, — approaching  every  day  nearer  the 
sun,  and  continuing  a shorter  time  above  the  horizon, — till,  in 
the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks,  it  appears  lost  in  the  splendour 
of  the  solar  rays,  and  is  no  longer  seen  in  the  evening  sky,  till 
more  than  nine  or  ten  months  have  elapsed.  About  eight  or 
ten  days  after  it  has  disappeared  in  the  evening,  if  we  look  at 
the  eastern  sky  in  the  morning,  a little  before  sunrise,  we  shall 
see  a bright  star  very  near  the  horizon,  which  was  not  previously 
to  be  seen  in  that  quarter;  this  is  the  planet  Venus,  which  has 
passed  its  inferior  conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  has  now  moved 
to  the  westward  of  him,  to  make  its  appearance  as  the  morning 
star.  It  now  appears  every  succeeding  day  to  move  pretty 
rapidly  from  the  sun  to  the  westward,  till  it  arrives  at  the  point 
of  its  greatest  elongation,  between  45°  and  48°  distant  from  the 
sun,  when  it  again  appears  stationary;  and  then  returns  east- 
ward, with  an  apparently  slow  motion,  till  it  is  again  immersed 
in  the  sun’s  rays,  and  arrives  at  its  superior  conjunction,  which 
happens  after  the  lapse  of  about  nine  months  from  the  time  of 
being  first  seen  in  the  morning.  But  the  planet  is  not  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  all  this  time,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the 


PHASES  AND  MOTIONS  OF  VENUS. 


65 


sun,  when  slowly  approaching  its  superior  conjunction.  After 
passing  this  conjunction,  it  soon  after  appears  in  the  evening, 
and  resumes  the  same  course,  as  above  stated.  During  each  of 
the  courses  now  described,  when  viewed  with  a telescope,  it  is 
seen  to  pass  successively  through  all  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
appearing  gibbous , or  nearly  round,  when  it  is  first  seen  in  the 
evening;  of  the  form  of  a half-moon  when  about  the  point  of 
its  greatest  elongation;  and  of  the  figure  of  a crescent,  gradually 
turning  more  and  more  slender  as  it  approaches  its  inferior  con- 
junction with  the  sun.  Such  are  the  general  appearances  which 
Venus  presents  to  the  attentive  eye  of  a common  observer,  the 
reasons  of  which  will  appear  from  the  following  figure  and  ex- 
planations. 

Fig.  11. 


Let  the  earth  be  supposed  at  K;  then,  when  Venus  is  in  the 
position  marked  A , it  is  nearly  in  a line  with  the  sun  as  seen 
from  the  earth,  in  wLich  position  it  is  said  to  be  in  its  superior 
conjunction  with  the  sun,  or  beyond  him,  in  the  remotest  part 
of  its  orbit  from  the  earth;  in  which  case,  the  body  of  the  sun 
sometimes  interposes  between  the  earth  and  Venus;  at  other 

F 


66 


CONJUNCTIONS  OF  VENUS. 


times,  it  is  either  a little  above  or  below  the  sun,  according  as 
it  happens  to  be  either  in  north  or  south  latitude.  When  it  is 
in  this  position,  the  whole  of  its  enlightened  hemisphere  is 
turned  towards  the  earth.  As  it  moves  on  in  its  orbit,  from  A 
to  B,  which  is  from  west  to  east,  and  is  called  its  direct  motion, 
it  begins  to  appear  in  the  evening  after  sunset.  When  it  arrives 
at  B,  it  is  seen  among  the  stars  at  L , in  which  position  it 
assumes  a gibbous  phase,  as  a portion  of  its  enlightened  hemi- 
sphere is  turned  from  the  earth.  When  it  arrives  at  C,  it  ap- 
pears among  the  stars  at  M,  at  a still  greater  distance  from  the 
sun,  and  exhibits  a less  gibbous  phase,  approaching  near  to  that 
of  a half-moon.  When  arrived  at  D,  it  is  at  the  point  of  its 
greatest  eastern  elongation,  when  it  appears  like  a half-moon, 
and  is  seen  among  the  stars  at  JV;  it  now  appears  for  some  time 
stationary;  after  which,  it  appears  to  move  with  a rapid  course 
in  an  opposite  direction,  or  from  east  to  west,  during  which  it 
presents  the  form  of  a crescent,  till  it  approaches  so  near  the 
sun  as  to  be  overpowered  with  the  splendour  of  his  rays.  When 
arrived  at  E,  it  is  said  to  be  in  its  inferior  conjunction,  and, 
consequently,  nearest  the  earth.  In  this  position  it  is  just  27 
millions  of  miles  from  the  earth;  whereas,  at  its  superior  con- 
junction, it  is  no  less  than  163  millions  of  miles  from  the  earth, 
for  it  is  then  further  distant  from  us  by  the  whole  diameter  of 
its  orbit,  which  is  136  millions  of  miles.  This  is  the  reason 
why  it  appears  much  smaller  at  its  superior  conjunction  than 
when  near  its  inferior;  although  in  the  latter  case  there  is  only 
a small  crescent  of  its  light  presented  to  us,  while  in  the  former 
case  its  full  enlightened  hemisphere  is  turned  to  the  earth. 

The  following  figure  (fig.  12)  will  exhibit  more  distinctly  the 
phases  of  this  planet,  in  the  different  parts  of  its  course,  and  the 
reason  of  the  difference  of  its  apparent  magnitude  in  different 
points  of  its  orbit.  At  A , it  is  in  the  superior  conjunction, 
when  it  presents  to  our  view  a round  full  face.  At  B , it  appears 
as  an  evening  star,  and  exhibits  a gibbous  phase,  somewhat  less 
than  a full  moon.  At  D , it  approaches  somewhat  nearer  to  a 
half  moon.  At  E , near  the  point  of  its  eastern  elongation,  it 
appears  like  a half  moon.  During  all  this  course,  it  moves  from 
west  to  east.  From  F to  /,  it  appears  to  move  in  a contrary 
direction  from  east  to  west,  during  which  it  assumes  the  figure 
of  a crescent,  gradually  diminishing  in  breadth,  but  increasing 
in  extent,  till  it  arrive  at  /,  the  point  of  its  inferior  conjunction, 
when  its  dark  hemisphere  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  and  is 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  AND  PHASES  OF  VENUS. 

Fig.  12. 


67 


consequently  invisible,  being  in  a situation  similar  to  that  of  the 
moon  at  the  time  of  change.  It  is  seen  no  longer  in  the  even- 
ings, but  soon  appears  in  the  morning  under  the  figure  of  a 
slender  crescent,  and  passes  through  all  the  other  phases  repre- 
sented in  the  diagram,  at  M , jV,  O,  &c.,  till  it  arrive  again  at 
A , its  superior  conjunction.  The  earth  is  here  supposed  to  be 
placed  at  K;  and  if  it  were  at  rest  in  that  position,  all  the 
changes  now  stated  would  happen  in  the  course  of  224  days. 
But  as  the  earth  is  moving  forward  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
planet,  it  requires  some  considerable  time  before  Venus  can 


68 


VISIBILITY  OF  VENUS. 


overtake  the  earth,  so  as  to  be  in  the  same  position  as  before 
with  respect  to  the  earth  and  the  sun.  The  time,  therefore,  that 
intervenes  between  the  superior  conjunction,  and  the  same  con- 
junction again,  is  nearly  584  days,  during  which  period  Venus 
passes  through  all  the  variety  of  its  motions  and  phases  as  a 
morning  and  evening  star. 

This  diversity  of  motions  and  phases,  as  formerly  stated, 
serves  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  system,  now  universally  re- 
ceived, which  places  the  sun  in  the  centre,  and  the  earth  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Venus.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  point  to  the 
astronomical  tyro,  in  the  most  convincing  manner,  I have  fre- 
quently used  the  following  plan.  With  the  aid  of  a planetarium, 
and  by  means  of  an  ephemeris,  or  a nautical  almanack,  I place 
the  earth  and  Venus  in  their  true  positions  on  the  planetarium, 
and  then  desire  the  learner  to  place  his  eye  in  a line  with  the 
balls  representing  Venus  and  the  earth,  and  to  mark  the  phase 
of  Venus  as  seen  from  the  earth,  whether  gibbous,  a half-moon, 
or  a crescent.  I then  adjust  an  equatorial  telescope,  (if  the 
observation  be  in  the  day-time,)  and,  pointing  it  to  Venus,  show 
him  this  planet,  with  the  same  phase  in  the  heavens — an  experi- 
ment which  never  fails  to  please,  and  to  produce  conviction. 

It  has  been  generally  asserted  by  astronomers,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  see  Venus  at  the  time  of  its  superior  conjunction 
with  the  sun.  Mr.  Benjamin  Martin,  in  his  “ Gentleman  and 
Lady’s  Philosophy,”  vol.  i.,  says — 44  At  and  about  her  upper 
conjunction,  Venus  cannot  be  seen,  by  reason  of  her  nearness  to 
the  sun.”  And  in  his  44  Philosophia  Britannica,”  vol.  iii.,  the 
same  opinion  is  expressed — “ At  her  superior  conjunction,  Venus 
would  appear  a full  enlightened  hemisphere,  were  it  not  that  she 
is  then  lost  in  the  sun’s  blaze , or  hid  behind  his  body.”  Dr.  Long, 
in  his  “ Astronomy,”  vol.  i.,  says — 44  Venus  in  her  superior 
conjunction,  if  she  could  be  seen , would  appear  round,  like  the 
full  moon.”  Sir  D.  Brewster,  in  the  article  Astronomy  in  the 
66  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,”  when  describing  the  phases  of 
Mercury  and  Venus,  says: — 44  Their  luminous  side  is  completely 
turned  to  the  earth  at  the  time  of  their  superior  conjunction, 
when  they  would  appear  like  the  full  moon,  if  they  were  not  then 
eclipsed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun.”  The  same  opinion  is  expressed 
in  similar  phrases  by  Ferguson,  Gregory,  Adams,  Gravesend, 
and  most  other  writers  on  the  science  of  astronomy,  which  has 
been  copied  by  all  subsequent  compilers  of  treatises  on  this  sub- 
ject. In  order  to  determine  this  point,  along  with  several 


DAY  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS. 


69 


others,  I commenced,  in  1813,  a series  of  observations  on  the 
celestial  bodies,  in  the  day-time , by  means  of  an  equatorial  in- 
strument. On  the  5th  of  June  that  year,  a little  before  mid- 
day, when  the  sun  was  shining  brightly,  I saw  Yenus  distinctly, 
with  a magnifying  power  of  sixty  times,  and  a few  minutes 
afterwards  with  a power  of  thirty,  and  even  with  a power  of 
fifteen  times.  At  this  time,  the  planet  was  just  3°  in  longitude 
and  about  13'  in  time  east  of  the  sun’s  centre,  and  of  course 
only  2f°  from  the  sun’s  limb.  Cloudy  weather  prevented 
observations  when  Yenus  was  nearer  the  sun.*  On  the  16th  of 
October,  1819,  an  observation  was  made,  in  which  Yenus  was 
seen  when  only  six  days  and  nineteen  hours  past  the  time  of 
her  superior  conjunction.  Her  distance  from  the  sun’s  eastern 
limb  was  then  only  1°  28'  42".  A subsequent  observation 
proved  that  she  could  be  seen  when  only  1°  27'  from  the  sun’s 
margin,  which  approximates  to  the  nearest  distance  from  the  sun 
at  which  Yenus  is  distinctly  visible.  About  the  10th  of  March, 
1826,  I had  a glimpse  of  this  planet,  within  a few  hours  of  its 
superior  conjunction,  but  the  interposition  of  clouds  prevented 
any  particular  or  continued  observations.  It  was  then  about 

* The  particulars  connected  with  this  observation,  and  with  those  made  on 
the  other  planets,  and  on  stars  of  the  first  and  second  magnitude,  together  with 
a description  of  the  instrument,  and  the  manner  of  making  day  observations, 
are  recorded  in  Nicholson’s  “Journal  of  Natural  Philosophy,”  for  October,  1813, 
vol.  xxxvi.  pp.  109 — 128,  in  a communication  which  occupies  about  twenty 
pages ; and  also,  in  an  abridged  form,  in  the  “ Monthly  Magazine,”  “ Annals 
of  Philosophy,”  and  other  journals  of  that  period.  During  the  succeeding 
winter,  the  celebrated  Mr.  Playfair,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  communicated,  in  his  lectures  to  the  students,  the  principal 
details  contained  in  that  communication,  as  new  facts  in  astronomical  science. 

Since  the  above  observations  were  made,  I have  had  opportunities  of  see- 
ing Venus  much  nearer  the  sun  than  what  is  noted  above,  particularly  on  the 
2nd  of  October,  1843.  At  this  time,  the  planet  Venus  passed  the  point  of  its 
superior  conjunction  with  the  sun  at  four  hours  fifteen  minutes  p.m.  At  two 
o’clock  p.m.,  only  two  hours  before  the  conjunction,  I perceived  the  planet  dis- 
tinctly for  nearly  ten  minutes,  till  some  dense  clouds  intercepted  the  view.  It 
appeared  well-defined,  though  not  brilliant,  and  with  a round  full  face,  like  the 
full  moon.  I perceived  it  afterwards,  about  half-past  four  p.m.,  only  a few 
minutes  after  it  had  passed  the  point  of  conjunction.  This  observation  was 
made  with  a three- and-a-half  feet  achromatic  telescope,  carrying  a power  of 
ninety-five  times,  the  aperture  of  its  object-glass  being  partly  contracted.  The 
distance  of  the  planet  at  this  time  from  the  sun’s  centre  was  1°  14',  and  conse- 
quently only  58'  from  the  sun’s  northern  limb.  This  is  the  first  observation, 
so  far  as  I know,  of  Venus  having  been  seen  at  the  time  of  her  superior  con- 
junction. For  a more  particular  account  of  this  observation,  see  “ Edinburgh 
New  Philosophical  Journal”  for  January,  1844,  pp.  164-166. 


70 


DAY  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS. 


1°  25 ^ from  the  sun’s  centre.  Observations  were  likewise 
made  to  determine  how  near  its  inferior  conjunction  this  planet 
may  be  seen.  The  following  is  the  observation  in  which  it  was 
seen  nearest  to  the  sun.  On  March  11th,  1822,  at  thirty 
minutes  past  twelve,  noon,  the  planet  being  only  thirty-five 
hours  past  the  point  of  its  inferior  conjunction,  I perceived  the 
crescent  of  Venus,  by  means  of  an  equatorial  telescope,  magni- 
fying about  seventy  times.  It  appeared  extremely  slender,  but 
distinct  and  well-defined,  and  apparently  of  a larger  curve  than 
that  of  the  lunar  crescent  when  the  moon  is  about  two  days  old. 
The  difference  of  longitude  between  the  sun  and  Venus  at  that 
time  was  about  2°  19'.  A gentleman  who  happened  to  be  pre- 
sent, perceived  the  same  phenomena  with  the  utmost  ease  and 
with  perfect  distinctness.* 

From  the  above  observations,  the  following  conclusions  are 
deduced: — 1.  That  Venus  may  be  distinctly  seen,  at  the  moment 
of  her  superior  conjunction,  with  a moderate  magnifying  power, 
when  her  geocentric  latitude, f at  the  time  of  conj  unction,  exceeds 
1 J°,  or,  at  most,  1°  43'.  2.  That  during  the  space  of  584  days, 

or  about  19  months,  the  time  Venus  takes  in  moving  from  one 
conjunction  of  the  sun  to  a like  conjunction  again,  when  her 
latitude,  at  the  time  of  her  superior  conjunction,  exceeds  1°  14' 
— she  may  be  seen , by  means  of  an  equatorial  telescope,  every 
clear  day  without  interruption , except  at  the  moment  of  her  in- 
ferior conjunction,  and  a very  short  time  before  and  after  it — a 
circumstance  which  cannot  be  affirmed  of  any  other  celestial 
body,  the  sun  only  excepted.  3.  That  from  the  time  Venus 
ceases  to  be  visible,  prior  to  her  inferior  conjunction,  on  account 
of  the  smallness  of  her  crescent,  and  her  proximity  to  the  sun, 
to  the  moment  when  she  may  again  be  perceived,  in  the  day- 
time, by  an  equatorial  telescope,  there  elapses  a period  of  only 


* The  observations  stated  above  are  also  recorded  in  scientific  journals. 
The  observation  of  the  16th  October,  1819,  is  recorded  in  the  “ Edinburgh 
Philosophical  Journal,”  No.  V.  for  July,  1820,  pp.  191,  192  ; and  in  Dr.  Brew- 
ster’s second  edition  of  “ Ferguson’s  Astronomy,”  vol.  ii.  p.  Ill  ; and  in  the 
“ Monthly  Magazine,”  for  August,  1820,  vol.  i.  p.  62.  The  observation  of 
March  11th,  1822,  made  on  Venus,  when  near  the  inferior  conjunction,  is 
recorded  at  large  in  the  “ Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,”  No.  XIII.,  July, 
1822,  pp.  177,  178,  &c. 

f The  latitude  of  a heavenly  body  is  its  distance  from  the  ecliptic,  or  the 
apparent  path  of  the  sun,  either  north  or  south.  Its  geocentric  latitude  is  its 
latitude  as  seen  from  the  earth.  Its  heliocentric  latitude  is  its  latitude  as 
viewed  from  the  sun.  These  latitudes  seldom  coincide. 


DAY  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS. 


71 


two  days  and  twenty-two  hours.  Or,  in  other  words,  Yenus 
can  never  be  hid  from  our  view  about  the  time  of  her  inferior 
conjunction  for  a longer  period  than  seventy  hours.  4.  That, 
during  the  space  of  584  days,  the  longest  period  in  which  Yenus 
can  be  hid  from  our  view,  under  any  circumstances,  excepting 
a cloudy  atmosphere,  is  about  sixteen  days  and  a half.  During 
the  same  period,  this  planet  sometimes  will  be  hid  from  the 
view  of  a common  observer  for  the  space  of  five  or  six  months. 

One  practical  use  of  the  above  observations  is,  that  they  may 
lead  to  the  determination  of  the  difference  (if  any)  between  the 
polar  and  equatorial  diameters  of  this  planet,  which  point  has 
never  yet  been  determined.  It  is  well  known  that  the  earth  is 
of  a spheroidal  figure,  having  its  polar  shorter  than  its  equa- 
torial diameter.  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Saturn,  have  also  been 
ascertained  to  be  oblate  spheroids,  and  the  proportion  between 
their  equatorial  and  polar  diameters  has  been  pretty  accurately 
determined.  As  Yenus  is  found  to  have  a rotation  round  her 
axis,  as  those  planets  have,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  she 
is  of  a similar  figure.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  determine 
this  point  when  she  is  in  those  positions  in  which  she  has 
generally  been  viewed;  as  at  such  times  she  assumes  either  a 
gibbous  phase,  the  form  of  a half-moon,  or  that  of  a crescent,  in 
neither  of  which  cases  can  the  two  diameters  be  measured.  I 
am  therefore  of  opinion  that,  at  some  future  conjunction,  when 
her  geocentric  latitude  is  considerable,  with  a telescope  of  a high 
magnifying  power,  furnished  with  a micrometer,  this  point  might 
be  ascertained.  If  the  planet  be  then  viewed  at  a high  altitude, 
and  the  sky  serene,  its  disk  will  appear  sufficiently  luminous  and 
well  defined  for  this  purpose — free  of  that  glare  and  tremulous 
aspect  it  generally  exhibits  when  near  the  horizon,  which  makes 
it  appear  larger  than  it  ought  to  do,  and  prevents  its  margin 
from  being  accurately  distinguished. 

Such  observations  require  a considerable  degree  of  attention 
and  care,  and  various  contrivances  for  occasionally  diminishing 
the  aperture  of  the  object  glass,  and  for  preventing  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  from  entering  the  tube  of  the  telescope.  In 
order  to  view  this  planet  to  advantage  at  any  future  conjunction, 
when  in  south  latitude,  it  will  be  proper  to  fix  a board,  or  any 
other  thin  opaque  substance,  at  a considerable  distance  beyond 
the  object  end  of  the  telescope,  having  such  a degree  of  concave 
curvature  as  shall  nearly  correspond  with  a segment  of  the 
diurnal  arc  at  that  time  described  by  the  sun,  with  its  lower  con- 


72 


DAY  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS. 


cave  edge  at  an  elevation  a small  degree  above  the  line  of  colli- 
mation  of  the  telescope,  when  adjusted  for  viewing  the  planet, 
in  order  to  intercept  as  much  as  possible  the  solar  rays.  When 
the  planet  is  in  north  latitude,  the  curvature  of  the  board  must 
be  made  convex , and  placed  a little  below  the  line  of  sight. 


Fig.  13. 


The  above  figure  will  illustrate  my  idea;  where  AB  (fig.  13) 
represents  the  concave  curve  of  the  board  to  be  used  when  the 
planet  is  in  south  latitude;  CD,  a segment  of  the  apparent 
diurnal  path  of  the  planet;  and  E jF,  a segment  of  the  sun’s 
diurnal  arc.  Fig.  14  represents  the  board  to  be  used  when 


Fig.  14. 


the  planet  is  in  north  latitude,  which  requires  no  further 
description. 

I have  given  the  above  brief  statement  of  the  observations  on 
Venus,  because  they  are  not  yet  generally  known,  and  because 
compilers  of  elementary  books  on  astronomy  still  reiterate  the 
vague  and  unfounded  assertion  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  this 
planet  at  its  superior  conjunction,  when  it  presents  a full  en- 
lightened hemisphere.  The  circumstance  now  ascertained  may 
not  be  considered  as  a fact  of  much  importance  in  astronomy. 
It  is  always  useful,  however,  in  every  department  of  science, 
to  ascertain  every  fact  connected  with  its  principles,  however 
circumstantial  and  minute,  as  it  tends  to  give  precision  to  its 


DISCOVERIES  ON  THE  SURFACE  OF  VENUS. 


73 


language — as  it  enables  the  mind  to  take  into  view  every  par- 
ticular which  has  the  least  bearing  on  any  object  of  investigation 
— and  as  it  may  ultimately  promote  its  progress  by  leading  to  con- 
clusions which  were  not  at  first  apprehended.  One  of  these  con- 
clusions, or  practical  uses,  has  been  stated  above ; and  another 
conclusion  is,  that  such  observations  as  now  referred  to  may 
possibly  lead  to  the  discovery  of  planets  yet  unknown  within  the 
orbit  of  Mercury,  which  circumstance  I shall  take  occasion  more 
particularly  to  explain  in  the  sequel. 

Discoveries  made  by  the  telescope  in  relation  to  Venus . — The 
first  circumstance  which  attracted  the  attention  of  astronomers 
after  the  invention  of  the  telescope  was,  the  variety  of  phases 
which  Venus  appeared  to  assume,  of  which  I have  already  given 
a description.  Nothing  further  was  observed  to  distinguish  this 
planet  till  more  than  half  a century  had  elapsed,  when  Cassini, 
a celebrated  French  astronomer,  in  the  year  1666-7,  discovered 
some  spots  on  its  surface,  by  which  he  endeavoured  to  ascertain 
the  period  of  its  revolution  round  its  axis.  October  14th,  1666, 
at  five  hours  forty-five  minutes,  p.m.,  he  saw  a bright  spot  near 
the  limits  between  the  light  and  the  dark  side  of  the  planet,  not 
far  from  its  centre;  at  the  same  time,  he  noticed  two  dark  oblong 
spots,  near  the  west  side  of  the  disk,  as  represented,  fig.  15. 
After  this,  he  could  obtain  no  satisfactory  views  of  Venus  till 
April  20,  1667,  about  fifteen  minutes  before  sunrise,  when  he 
saw  upon  the  disk,  now  half  enlightened,  a bright  part,  distant 
from  the  southern  edge  about  a fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of 
the  disk,  and  near  the  eastern  edge.  He  saw,  likewise,  a darkish 
oblong  spot  towards  the  northern  "edge,  as  in  fig.  16.  At  sun- 
rise, he  perceived  that  the  bright  part  was  advanced  further 
from  the  southern  point  than  when  he  first  observed  it;  as  at 
fig.  17,  when  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  an  evident  proof 
of  the  planet’s  motion.  On  the  next  day,  at  sunrise,  the  bright 
spot  was  a good  way  off  the  section,  and  distant  from  the 
southern  point  a fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  disk.  When 
the  sun  had  risen  six  degrees  above  the  horizon,  the  spot  had 
got  beyond  the  centre.  When  the  sun  had  risen  seven  degrees, 
the  section  cut  it  in  halves,  as  in  fig.  18,  which  showed  its 
motion  to  have  some  inclination  towards  the  centre.*  Several 
other  observations  of  a similar  kind  were  made  about  that  time, 

* See  “ Philosophical  Transactions,”  abridged  by  Drs.  Hutton,  Shaw,  and 
Pearson,  vol.  i.,  part  ii.,  p.  217  ; “ Journal  des  Scavans vol.  i.,  p.  216 ; and 
“ Memoires  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.” 


74 


DISCOVERIES  ON  THE  SURFACE  OF  VENUS. 


which  led  Cassini  to  the  conclusion  that  the  planet  revolves  about 
its  axis  in  a period  somewhat  more  than  twenty-three  hours. 
From  this  time,  for  nearly  sixty  years,  we  have  no  further  ac- 
counts of  spots  having  been  observed  on  the  disk*  of  Venus. 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17.  Fig.  18. 


In  the  year  1726,  Bianchini , with  telescopes  of  90  and  100 
Roman  palms,  commenced  a series  of  observations  on  Venus, 
and  published  an  account  of  them  in  a book  entitled — “ Hesperi 
et  Phosphori  nova  Phenomena .”  In  these  observations  we  do 
not  find  that  any  one  of  them  was  continued  long  enough  to  dis- 
cover any  change  of  position  in  the  spots,  at  the  end  of  the 

* The  disk  of  a heavenly  body  is  the  apparently  flat  face  of  the  sun  or  moon, 
or  of  any  planet,  when  viewed  through  a telescope. 


BIANCHINIS  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS. 


75 


observation,  from  what  there  was  at  the  beginning:  but  at  the 
distance  of  two  and  of  four  days,  he  found  the  same  spot  ad- 
vanced so  far  that  he  concluded  it  must  have  gone  round  at  the 
rate  of  15°  in  a day.  This  advance  would  show  that  Venus 
turned  round  either  once  in  about  twenty-four  days  or  in  little 
more  than  twenty-three  hours,  but  would  not  determine  which 
of  these  was  the  true  period.  For,  if  an  observer,  at  a given 
hour — suppose  seven  in  the  evening — were  to  mark  the  exact 
place  of  a spot,  and  at  the  same  hour  on  the  next  day  find  the 
spot  advanced  15°,  he  would  not  be  able  to  determine  whether 
the  spot,  during  that  interval  of  twenty-four  hours,  had  advanced 
forward  only  15°,  or  had  finished  a revolution,  and  15°  more  as 
part  of  another  rot  tion.*  Of  these  two  periods,  Bianchini  con- 
cluded that  the  rotation  was  accomplished  in  twenty -four  days, 
eight  hours.  The  following  is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  obser- 
vation he  brings  forward  to  substantiate  his  conclusion.  He  saw 
three  spots,  A , B , C,  in  the  situation  represented  in  fig.  19,  which 


Fig.  19. 


he  and  several  persons  of  distinction  viewed  for  about  an  hour, 
when  they  could  discover  no  change  of  place  in  their  appearance. 
Venus  being  hid  behind  the  Barbarine  palace,  their  view  was 
interrupted  for  almost  three  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  they 
found  that  the  spots  had  not  sensibly  changed  their  situation. 
But  the  inference  from  this  observation  is  not  conclusive  for  the 
period  of  twenty-four  days,  eight  hours.  For,  during  the  three 
hours’  interruption,  the  spot  Cmight  have  gone  off  the  disk,  and  the 
spot  B moved  into  its  place,  where,  being  near  the  edge,  it  would 

* See  some  particular  remarks  on  this  subject,  illustrated  with  a figure,  in 
my  volume  “ On  the  Improvement  of  Society,”  section  iii. 


76 


schroeter’s  observations. 


appear  less  than  when  in  the  middle;  that  A succeeding  into  the 
place  of  B , would  appear  larger  than  it  did  near  the  edge,  and 
that  another  spot  might  have  come  into  the  place  of  A . For, 
that  there  were  other  spots,  particularly  one,  which  by  the  rota- 
tion of  Venus  would  have  been  brought  into  the  place  of  A , 
appears  by  the  figures  given  by  Bianchini;  and  if  so,  it  would 
correspond  with  the  rotation  of  twenty-three  hours,  twenty 
minutes,  deduced  by  Cassini.  Besides,  it  is  impossible  to  make 
observations  on  Venus  for  three  or  four  hours  in  succession,  as 
is  here  supposed,  without  the  help  of  equatorial  instruments, 
which  were  not  then  in  use,  as  this  planet  is  seldom  more  than 
three  hours  above  the  horizon  after  sunset;  and  when  it  descends 
within  8°  or  10°  of  the  horizon,  it  is  impossible  to  see  its  surface 
with  any  degree  of  distinctness,  on  account  of  the  brilliancy  of 
its  light,  and  the  undulating  vapours  near  the  horizon,  which,  in 
some  cases,  prevent  even  its  phase  from  being  accurately  dis- 
tinguished. In  the  communication  in  “ Nicholson’s  Journal,” 
for  1813,  already  referred  to,  I have  shown  how  the  dispute  in 
reference  to  the  rotation  of  Venus  may  be  settled  by  commencing 
a series  of  observations  on  this  planet  in  the  day-time,  when  its 
spots,  if  any  were  perceived,  could  be  traced  in  their  motion  for 
twelve  hours  or  more.  Mr.  Ferguson,  in  his  Astronomy,  by 
adopting  the  conclusion  of  Bianchini,  has  occupied  a number  of 
pages  in  describing  the  phenomena  on  Venus  on  this  suppo- 
sition, which  description  is  altogether  useless,  and  conveys 
erroneous  ideas  of  the  circumstances  connected  with  this  planet, 
if  the  period  determined  by  Cassini  (as  is  most  probable)  be 
correct. 

Mr.  Schroeter,  formerly  mentioned,  who  has  been  a most 
diligent  and  accurate  observer  of  the  heavens,  commenced  a 
series  of  observations  in  order  to  determine  the  daily  period  of 
this  planet.  He  observed  particularly  the  different  shapes  of 
the  two  horns  of  Venus.  Their  appearance  generally  varied  in 
a few  hours,  and  became  nearly  the  same  at  the  corresponding 
time  of  the  subsequent  day ; or  rather,  about  half  an  hour  sooner 
every  day.  Hence  he  concluded  that  the  period  must  be  about 
twenty-three  hours  and  a half — that  the  equator  of  the  planet 
is  considerably  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  and  its  pole  at  a con- 
siderable distance  from  the  point  of  the  horn.  From  several 
observations  of  this  kind,  he  found  that  the  period  of  rotation 
must  be  twenty-three  hours,  twenty- one  minutes,  or  only  one 
minute  more  than  had  been  assigned  by  Cassini,  and  which,  we 


MOUNTAINS  ON  VENUS. 


77 


have  reason  to  believe,  is  about  the  true  period  of  this  planet’s 
revolution  round  its  axis,  which  is  thirty-five  minutes  less  than 
the  period  of  the  earth’s  rotation,  which  is  twenty-three  hours, 
fifty-six  minutes.  I have  stated  these  observations  respecting 
the  rotation  of  Venus  at  some  length,  because  they  are  not  gene- 
rally known  to  common  readers  on  this  subject,  nor  noticed  in 
modern  elementary  books  on  astronomy,  and  that  the  general 
reader  may  perceive  the  reason  of  the  dispute  which  has  arisen 
among  astronomers  on  this  point. 

Mountains  on  Venus. — Mr.  Schroeter,  in  his  observations, 
discovered  several  mountains  on  this  planet,  and  found  that,  like 
those  of  the  moon,  they  were  always  highest  in  the  southern 
hemisphere;  their  perpendicular  heights  being  nearly  as  the 
diameters  of  their  respective  planets.  From  the  1 1th  of  December, 
1789,  to  the  11th  of  January,  1790,  the  southern  horn,  b , 
(fig.  20,)  appeared  much  blunted,  with  an  enlightened  mountain, 
m9  in  the  dark  hemisphere,  which  he  estimated  at  about  18,300 
toises,  or  nearly  twenty-two  miles,  in  perpendicular  height.  It 
is  quite  obvious  that  if  such  a bright  spot  as  here  represented 
was  regularly  or  periodically  seen,  it  must  indicate  a very  high 
elevation  on  the  surface  of  the  planet,  and  its  precise  height 


78 


ATMOSPHERE  OF  VENUS. 


will  depend  upon  its  distance  from  the  illuminated  portion  of  the 
disk,  or,  in  other  words,  the  length  of  its  shadow.  It  is  pre- 
cisely in  such  a way  that  the  mountains  in  the  moon  are  distin- 
guished. Mr.  Schroeter  measured  the  altitude  of  other  three 
mountains,  and  obtained  the  following  results: — Height  of  the 
first,  nineteen  miles;  or  about  five  times  the  height  of  Chim- 
borazo; height  of  the  second,  eleven  miles  and  a half;  and  of 
the  third,  ten  miles  and  three  quarters.  These  estimates  may, 
perhaps,  require  certain  corrections  in  future  observations. 

Atmosphere  of  Venus . — From  several  of  Mr.  Schroeter’s  ob- 
servations, he  concludes  that  Venus  has  an  atmosphere  of  a 
considerable  extent.  On  the  10th  of  September,  1791,  he  ob- 
served that  the  southern  cusp  of  Venus  disappeared  and  was 
bent  like  a hook,  about  eight  seconds  beyond  the  luminous  semi- 
circle, into  the  dark  hemisphere.  The  northern  cusp  had  the 
same  tapering  termination,  but  did  not  encroach  upon  the  dark 
part  of  the  disk.  A streak,  however,  of  glimmering  bluish 
light  proceeded  about  eight  seconds  along  the  dark  line,  from 
the  point  of  the  cusp,  from  h to  c9  (fig.  21,)  h being  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  diameter  a h9  and  consequently  the  natural  ter- 
mination of  the  cusp.  The  streak  h c , verging  to  a pale  grey, 
was  faint  when  compared  with  the  light  of  the  cusp  at  h.  I was 
struck  with  a similar  appearance,  when  observing  Venus,  when 
only  thirty-five  hours  past  her  inferior  conjunction,  on  March  1 1, 
1822,  as  formerly  noticed,  (p.  69.)  One  of  the  cusps,  at  least, 
appeared  to  project  into  the  dark  hemisphere,  like  a fine  lucid 
thread,  beyond  the  luminous  semicircle.  This  phenomenon  Mr. 
Schroeter  considers  as  the  twilight , or  crepuscular  light,  of  Venus. 
From  these  and  various  other  observations,  which  it  would  be 
too  tedious  to  detail,  he  concludes,  on  the  ground  of  various 
calculations,  that  the  dense  part  of  the  atmosphere  of  Venus  is 
about  16,020  feet,  or  somewhat  above  three  miles  high — that  it 
must  rise  far  above  the  highest  mountains — that  it  is  more 
opaque  than  that  of  the  moon — and  that  its  density  is  a sufficient 
reason  why  we  do  not  discover  on  the  surface  of  Venus  those 
superficial  shades  and  varieties  of  appearance  which  are  to  be 
seen  on  the  other  planets. 

Day  Observations  on  Venus . — The  most  distinct  and  satis- 
factory views  I have  ever  obtained  of  this  planet  were  taken  at 
noon-day,  or  between  the  hours  of  ten  in  the  morning  and  two 
in  the  afternoon,  when  it  happened  to  be  at  a high  elevation 
above  the  horizon,  which  is  generally  the  case  during  the 


DAY  OBSERVATIONS  ON  VENUS 


79 


summer  months.  The  light  of  this  planet  is  so  brilliant,  that 
its  surface  and  margin  seldom  appear  well  defined  in  the  evening, 
even  with  the  best  telescopes.  But  in  the  day-time  its  disk  and 
margin  present  a sharp  and  well-defined  aspect,  with  a good 
achromatic  telescope,  and  almost  completely  free  of  those  undu- 
lations which  obscure  its  surface  when  near  the  horizon.  The 
following  figure  (No.  1)  represents  one  of  the  appearances  of 
Venus  which  I have  frequently  seen  in  the  day-time,  when 
viewing  this  planet  at  a high  altitude,  and  in  a serene  sky,  when 
near  the  meridian,  by  means  of  a three-and-a-half  feet  achromatic 
telescope,  magnifying  about  150  times. 


Fig.  22. 


The  exterior  curve  of  the  planet,  as  here  exhibited,  appeared 
far  more  lucid  and  bright  than  the  interior  portion.  It  was  not 
a mere  stripe  or  luminous  margin,  but  a broad  semicircle,  of  a 
breadth  nearly  one-third  of  the  semi-diameter  of  the  planet.  It 
appeared  as  if  it  had  been  a kind  of  table-land  or  a more  elevated 
portion  of  the  planet’s  surface,  while  the  interior  and  darker 
part  appeared  more  like  a plain,  diversified  with  inequalities; 
and  two  large  spots,  somewhat  darker  than  the  other  parts,  were 
faintly  marked.  The  appearance  was  something  similar  to  that 
of  certain  portions  of  the  level  parts  of  the  moon  which  lie 


80 


SUPPOSED  SATELLITE  OF  VENUS. 


adjacent  to  a ridge  of  mountains,  or  a range  of  elevated  ground. 
I have  exhibited  this  view  of  Venus,  at  different  times,  to  various 
individuals;  and  even  those  not  accustomed  to  look  through 
telescopes  could  plainly  perceive  it.  I consider  it  as  a corrobora- 
tion of  the  fact,  that  mountains  of  great  elevation  exist  on  the 
surface  of  this  planet.  There  appeared  likewise  some  slight 
indentations  in  the  boundary  which  separates  the  dark  from  the 
enlightened  hemisphere,  which  circumstance  leads  to  the  same 
conclusion.  If  the  whole  hemisphere  of  the  planet  had  been 
enlightened,  it  would  probably  have  appeared  as  in  No.  2.  On 
the  whole,  I am  of  opinion  that  future  discoveries,  in  relation  to 
Venus,  will  be  chiefly  made  in  the  day-time,  by  large  telescopes, 
adapted  to  equatorial  machinery,  when  such  instruments  shall  be 
brought  into  use  more  than  they  have  hitherto  been.  Venus, 
however,  is  the  only  planet  on  which  useful  observations  can  be 
made  in  the  day-time;  for  although  several  of  the  other  planets 
can  be  perceived,  even  at  noon-day,  particularly  Jupiter,  yet 
they  present  a very  obscure  and  cloudy  appearance,  compared 
with  Venus,  on  account  of  the  comparatively  small  quantity  of 
solar  light  which  falls  upon  their  surfaces. 

Supposed  Satellite  of  Venus . — Several  astronomers  have  been 
of  opinion  that  Venus  is  attended  by  a satellite,  although  it  is 
seldom  to  be  seen.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  give  the  reader 
an  abridged  view  of  the  observations  on  which  this  opinion  is 
founded,  that  he  may  be  able  to  judge  for  himself.  The  cele- 
brated Cassini,  who  discovered  the  rotation  of  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Venus,  and  four  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn,  was  the  first 
who  broached  this  opinion.  The  following  is  his  account  of  the 
observations  on  which  it  is  founded : — 

“ 1686,  August  18,  at  fifteen  minutes  past  four  in  the  morn- 
ing, looking  at  Venus  with  a telescope  of  thirty- four  feet,  I saw 
at  the  distance  of  three-fifths  of  her  diameter,  eastward,  a lumi- 
nous appearance,  of  a shape  not  well  defined,  that  seemed  to 
have  the  same  phase  with  Venus,  which  was  then  gibbous  on 
the  western  side.  The  diameter  of  this  phenomenon  was  nearly 
equal  to  a fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of  Venus.  I observed  it 
attentively  for  a quarter  of  an  hour,  and  having  left  off*  looking 
at  it  for  four  or  five  minutes,  I saw  it  no  more;  but  daylight 
was  then  advanced.  I had  seen  a like  phenomenon,  which  re- 
sembled the  phase  of  Venus,  on  January  2oth,  1672,  from  fifty- 
two  minutes  after  six  in  the  morning  to  two  minutes  after  seven, 
when  the  brightness  of  the  twilight  caused  it  to  disappear. 


SUPPOSED  SATELLITE  OF  VENUS. 


81 


Venus  was  then  horned,  and  this  phenomenon,  the  diameter  of 
which  was  nearly  a fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of  Venus,  was 
of  the  same  shape.  It  was  distant  from  the  southern  horn  of 
Venus  a diameter  of  Venus  on  the  western  side.  In  these  two 
observations,  I was  in  doubt  whether  it  was  not  a satellite  of 
Venus,  of  such  a consistence  as  not  to  be  very  well  fitted  to  reflect 
the  light  of  the  sun,  and  which  in  magnitude  bore  nearly  the 
same  proportion  to  Venus  as  the  moon  does  to  the  earth,  being 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun  and  the  earth  as  Venus  was, 
the  phases  of  which  it  resembled.” 

In  the  year  1740,  October  23rd,  at  sunrise,  Mr.  Short,  with 
a reflecting  telescope  of  sixteen  inches  and  a half,  which  magni- 
fied about  sixty  times,  perceived  a small  star  at  the  distance  of 
about  ten  seconds  from  Venus;  and  putting  on  a magnifying 
power  of  240  times,  he  found  the  star  put  on  the  phase  of  Venus. 
He  tried  another  magnifying  power  of  140  times,  and  even  then 
found  the  star  have  the  same  phase.  Its  diameter  seemed  about 
a third  of  the  diameter  of  Venus.  Its  light  was  not  so  bright 
or  vivid,  but  exceedingly  sharp  and  well  defined.  A line  pass- 
ing through  the  centre  of  Venus  and  it,  made  an  angle  with  the 
equator  of  about  twenty  degrees.  He  saw  it,  for  the  space  of  an 
hour,  several  times  that  morning.  But  the  light  of  the  sun  in- 
creasing, he  lost  it,  about  a quarter  of  an  hour  after  eight.  He 
says  he  looked  for  it  every  clear  morning  after  this,  but  never 
saw  it  again.* 

A similar  phenomenon  is  described  as  having  been  seen  by 
Baudouin,  Montaigne,  Rodkier,  Montbarron,  and  other  astro- 
nomers, and,  from  their  observations,  the  celebrated  M.  Lam- 
bert, in  the  “ Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,”  for  1773, 
gave  a theory  of  the  satellite  of  Venus,  in  which  he  concludes 
that  its  period  is  eleven  days,  five  hours,  and  thirteen  minutes; 
the  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  63f°;  its  distance  from 
Venus,  66^  radii  of  that  planet;  and  its  magnitude,  :T  of  that  of 
Venus;  or  nearly  equal  to  that  of  our  moon.  There  is  a singular 
consistency  in  these  observations,  which  it  is  difficult  to  account 
for,  if  Venus  have  no  satellite.  A stronomers  expected  that  such 
a body,  if  it  existed,  would  have  been  seen  as  a small  dark  spot 
upon  the  sun,  at  the  time  of  the  transits  of  Venus,  in  1761  and 
1769.  But  no  such  phenomenon  seems  to  have  been  noticed  at 

* “ Philosophical  Transactions,”  No.  459,  for  January,  February,  and  March, 

1741. 


G 


82 


MONTAIGNE  S OBSERVATIONS 


those  times  by  any  of  the  observers.  Lambert,  however,  main- 
tains, from  the  tables  he  calculated  in  relation  to  this  body,  that 
the  satellite,  if  it  did  exist,  might  not  have  passed  over  the  sun’s 
disk  at  the  time  of  the  transits,  but  he  expected  that  it  might  be 
seen  alone  on  the  sun  when  Venus  passed  near  that  luminary. 

The  following  is  a particular  account  of  the  observations  made 
by  Mr.  Montaigne  : — May  3,  1761,  he  perceived,  at  twenty 
minutes’  distance  from  Venus,  a small  crescent,  with  the  horns 
pointing  the  same  way  as  those  of  Venus.  Its  diameter  was  a 
fourth  of  that  of  its  primary;  and  a line  drawn  from  Venus  to 
the  satellite  made,  below  Venus,  an  angle  with  the  vertical  of 
about  twenty  degrees  towards  the  south,  as  in  Fig.  22,  No.  3, 
where  Z N represents  the  vertical,  and  E C a parallel  to  the 
ecliptic,  making  then  an  angle  with  the  vertical  of  forty-five 
degrees.  The  numbers  3,  4,  7,  11,  mark  the  situation  of  the 
satellite  on  the  respective  days.  May  4th,  at  the  same  hour,  he 
saw  the  same  star,  distant  from  Venus  about  one  minute  more 


Fig.  22. — No.  3. 

North. 


South. 


ON  THE  SATELLITE  OF  VENUS. 


83 


than  before,  and  making  an  angle  with  the  vertical  of  ten  degrees 
below,  but  on  the  north  side;  so  that  the  satellite  seemed  to 
have  described  an  arc  of  about  thirty  degrees,  whereof  Venus 
was  the  centre,  and  the  radius  twenty  minutes.  The  two  fol- 
lowing nights  being  hazy,  Venus  could  not  be  seen.  But 
May  7th,  at  the  same  hour  as  on  the  preceding  days,  he  saw  the 
satellite  again,  but  above  Venus,  and  on  the  north  side,  as  re- 
presented at  7,  between  twenty-five  and  twenty-six  minutes, 
upon  a line  which  made  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the 
vertical  towards  the  right  hand.  It  appears  by  the  figure,  that 
the  points  3 and  7 would  have  been  diametrically  opposite  if  the 
satellite  had  gone  fifteen  degrees  more  round  the  central  point 
where  Venus  is  represented.  May  11th,  at  nine  o’clock,  p.m., 
the  only  night  when  the  view  of  the  planet  was  not  obscured  by 
moonlight,  twilight,  or  clouds,  the  satellite  appeared  nearly  at 
the  same  distance  from  Venus  as  before,  making  with  the  ver- 
tical an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  towards  the  south,  and  above 
its  primary.  The  light  of  the  satellite  was  always  very  weak; 
but  it  had  always  the  same  phase  with  its  primary,  whether 
viewed  with  it  in  the  field  of  the  telescope,  or  alone  by  itself. 
He  imagined  that  the  reason  why  the  satellite  had  been  so  fre- 
quently looked  for  without  success  might  be,  that  one  part  of  its 
globe  was  crusted  over  with  spots,  or  otherwise  unfit  to  reflect 
the  light  of  the  sun  with  any  degree  of  brilliancy ; as  is  supposed 
to  be  the  case  with  the  fifth  satellite  of  Saturn. 

It  is  evident  that,  if  Venus  have  a satellite,  it  must  be  diffi- 
cult to  be  seen,  and  can  only  be  perceived  in  certain  favourable 
positions.  It  cannot  be  seen  when  nearly  the  whole  of  its  en- 
lightened hemisphere  is  turned  to  the  earth,  on  account  of  its 
great  distance  at  such  a time,  and  its  proximity  to  the  sun;  nor 
could  it  be  expected  to  be  seen  when  the  planet  is  near  its  in- 
ferior conjunction,  as  it  would  then  present  to  the  earth  only  a 
very  slender  crescent,  besides  being  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  the  sun.  The  best  position  in  which  such  a body  might 
be  detected,  is  near  the  time  of  the  planet’s  greatest  elongation, 
and  when  it  would  appear  about  half  enlightened.  If  the  plane 
of  its  orbit  be  nearly  coincident  with  the  plane  of  the  planet’s 
orbit,  it  will  be  frequently  hid  by  the  interposition  of  the  body 
of  Venus,  and  likewise  when  passing  along  her  surface  in  the 
opposite  point  of  its  orbit;  and  if  one  side  of  this  body  be  un- 
fitted for  reflecting  much  light,  it  will  account  in  part  for  its 
being  seldom  seen.  It  is  not  sufficient,  in  this  case,  to  say,  as 

g 2 


84 


TRANSITS  OF  VENUS. 


Sir  David  Brewster  has  done,  “ that  Mr.  Wargentin  had  in  his 
possession  a good  achromatic  telescope,  which  always  showed 
Venus  with  such  a satellite,  and  that  the  deception  was  dis- 
covered by  turning  the  telescope  about  its  axis.”  For  we 
cannot  suppose  that  such  accurate  observers  as  those  mentioned 
above  would  have  been  deceived  by  such  an  optical  illusion; 
and  besides,  the  telescopes  which  were  used  in  the  observations 
alluded  to  were  both  refractors  and  reflectors,  and  it  is  not 
likely  that  both  kinds  of  instruments  would  have  produced  an 
illusion,  especially  when  three  different  powers  were  applied,  as 
in  Mr.  Short’s  observations.  Were  the  attention  of  astronomers 
more  particularly  directed  to  this  point  than  it  has  hitherto 
been — were  the  number  of  astronomical  observers  increased  to 
a much  greater  degree  than  at  present — and  were  frequent  ob- 
servations on  this  planet  made  in  the  clear  and  serene  sky  of 
tropical  climes,  it  is  not  improbable  that  a decisive  opinion 
might  soon  be  formed  on  this  point;  and  if  a satellite  were  de- 
tected, it  would  tend  to  promote  the  progress  and  illustrate  the 
deductions  of  physical  astronomy.  It  is  somewhat  probable, 
reasoning  a priori,  that  Venus — a planet  nearly  as  large  as  the 
earth,  and  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood — is  accompanied 
with  a secondary  attendant. 

Transits  of  Venus . — This  planet,  when  in  certain  positions, 
is  seen  to  pass  like  a round  black  spot  across  the  disk  of  the 
sun.  These  transits , as  they  are  called,  are  of  rare  occurrence, 
and  take  place  at  intervals  of  8 and  of  1 1 3 years.  If  the  plane 
of  the  orbit  of  Venus  exactly  coincided  with  that  of  the  earth,  a 
transit  would  happen  at  regular  intervals  of  little  more  than 
nineteen  months;  but  as  one-half  of  this  planet’s  orbit  is  three 
degrees  and  a half  below  the  plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  and  the 
other  half  as  much  above  it,  a transit  can  only  take  place  when 
it  happens  to  be  in  one  of  the  nodes , or  intersections,  of  the 
orbits,  about  the  time  of  its  inferior  conjunction.  These  transits 
of  Venus  are  phenomena  of  very  great  importance  in  astronomy, 
as  it  is  owing  to  the  observations  which  have  been  made  on 
them,  and  the  calculations  founded  on  these  observations,  that 
the  distance  of  the  sun  has  been  very  nearly  ascertained,  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  planetary  system  determined  to  a near 
approximation  to  the  truth.  It  would  be  too  tedious  to  enter 
into  a particular  explanation  of  the  process  and  calculations 
connected  with  this  subject,  and  therefore  I shall  only,  in  a few 
words,  explain  the  principle  on  which  the  deductions  are 


UTILITY  OF  OBSERVING  TRANSITS. 


85 


Fig.  23. 


founded.  Suppose  B A (fig.  23)  to  represent  the  earth ; v, 
Venus;  and  S,  the  sun.  Suppose  two  spectators,  A and  B , at 
opposite  extremities  of  that  diameter  of  the  earth  which  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  ecliptic;  then,  at  the  moment  when  the  ob- 
server at  B sees  the  centre  of  the  planet  projected  at  Z>,  the 
observer  at  A will  see  it  projected  at  C.  If,  then,  the  two  ob- 
servers can  mark  the  precise  position  of  Venus  on  the  sun’s 
disk  at  any  given  moment,  or  note  the  precise  time  of  ingress, 
or  egress,  of  the  planet,  the  angular  measure  of  C D , as  seen 
from  the  earth,  might  be  ascertained.  Since  A C and  B D are 
straight  lines  crossing  each  other  at  v,  they  consequently  make 
equal  angles  on  each  side  of  the  point  v ; and  CD  will  be  to 
B A as  the  distance  of  Venus  from  the  sun  is  to  her  distance 
from  the  earth;  that  is,  as  68  to  27,  or  nearly  as  2-i-  te  1:  for 
Venus  is  68  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun,  and  27  millions 
from  the  earth,  at  the  time  of  a transit,  or  an  inferior  conjunc- 
tion. C D,  therefore,  occupies  a space  on  the  sun’s  disk  2\ 
times  as  great  as  the  earth’s  apparent  diameter  at  the  distance 
of  the  sun;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  equal  to  five  times  the  sun’s 
horizontal  parallax;  and,  therefore,  any  error  that  might  occur 
in  measuring  it,  will  amount  to  only  one-fifth  of  that  error  on 
the  horizontal  parallax  that  may  be  deduced  from  it;  and  it  is 
on  the  ground  of  this  parallax  that  the  distance  of  the  sun  is 
determined.  The  result  of  all  the  observations  made  on  the 
transits  which  happened  in  1761  and  1769  gives  about  8^- 
seconds  as  the  horizontal  parallax  of  the  sun,  which  makes  his 
distance  95  millions  of  miles.  This  distance  is  considered  by 
the  most  enlightened  astronomers  as  within  one-fiftieth  part  of 
the  true  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth;  so  that  no  future 
observations  will  alter  this  distance  so  as  to  make  it  vary  more 
or  less  than  two  millions  of  miles. 


86 


EXTENT  OF  SURFACE  ON  VENUS. 


The  future  transits  of  Venus  for  the  next  400  years  are  as 
follow : — 

hours.  minutes. 


1874,  December  9th  4 8 a.m. 

1882,  December  6th  4 16  p.m. 

2004,  June  8th  8 51  a.m. 

2012,  June  6th  1 17  a.m. 

2117,  December  11th 2 57  a.m. 

2125,  December  8th  3 9 p.m. 

2247,  June  11th 0 21  p.m. 

2255,  June  9th  4 44  a.m. 


Some  of  these  transits  will  last  nearly  seven  hours.  The 
next  two  transits  will  not  be  visible  throughout  their  whole 
duration  in  Britain,  or  in  most  countries  in  Europe.  Such  was 
the  importance  attached  to  the  observations  of  the  last  transits 
in  1761  and  1769,  that  several  of  the  European  states  fitted  out 
expeditions  to  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  sent  astronomers 
along  with  them  to  make  the  requisite  observations.  This 
was  one  end,  among  others,  of  the  celebrated  expedition  of 
Captain  Cook,  in  1769,  to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and 
the  transit  was  observed  in  Otaheite , now  so  celebrated  on  ac- 
count of  the  moral  revolution  which  has  lately  taken  place 
among  its  inhabitants. 

Magnitude , and  Extent  of  Surface  on  this  Planet . — The 
diameter  of  Venus  has  been  computed  at  about  7800  miles; 
and,  consequently,  its  surface  contains  191,134,944,  or  above 
191  millions  of  square  miles.  Taking,  as  formerly,  the  popula- 
tion of  England  as  a standard,  this  planet  would  contain  a 
number  of  inhabitants  equal  to  more  than  53,500  millions,  or 
nearly  sixty-seven  times  the  population  of  our  globe.  It  does 
not  appear  that  any  great  quantity  of  water  exists  upon  this 
planet,  otherwise  there  would  be  a greater  contrast  between  the 
different  parts  of  its  surface,  the  water  presenting  a much 
darker  hue  than  the  land.  For,  if  from  a high  mountain  we 
survey  a scene  in  which  a portion  of  a large  river,  or  of  the 
ocean,  is  contained,  when  the  sun  is  shining  on  all  the  objects, 
we  shall  find  that  the  water  presents  a much  darker  appearance 
than  the  land,  as  it  absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  rays  of  light 
— except  in  a few  points  between  our  eyes  and  the  sun,  where 
his  rays  are  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  fluid : but  these 
partial  reflections  would  be  altogether  invisible  at  the  distance 
of  the  nearest  planet.  It  is  pretty  evident,  however,  from  what 
has  been  formerly  stated,  that  there  is  a great  diversity  of 


QUANTITY  OF  LIGHT  ON  VENUS. 


87 


surface  on  this  planet;  and  if  some  of  its  mountains  be  more 
than  twenty  miles  in  elevation,  they  may  present  to  view  ob- 
jects of  sublimity  and  grandeur,  and  from  their  summits  exten- 
sive and  diversified  prospects,  of  which  we  can  form  no  adequate 
conception.  So  that  Venus,  although  a small  fraction  smaller 
than  the  earth,  may  hold  a rank  in  the  solar  system,  and  in  the 
empire  of  the  Almighty,  in  point  of  population  and  sublimity  of 
scenery  far  surpassing  that  of  the  world  in  which  we  dwell. 

Having  dwelt  so  long  on  the  phenomena  of  this  planet,  I 
shall  state  only  the  following  additional  particulars: — The  quan- 
tity of  light  on  Venus  is  nearly  twice  as  great  as  that  on  the 
earth,  which  will,  doubtless,  have  the  effect  of  causing  all  the 
colours  reflected  from  the  different  parts  of  the  scenery  of  that 
planet  to  present  a more  vivid,  rich,  and  magnificent  appearance 
than  with  us.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  a great  proportion  of  the 
objects  on  its  surface  is  fitted  to  reflect  the  solar  rays  with 
peculiar  splendour;  for  its  light  is  so  intense  as  to  be  distinctly 
seen  by  telescopes  in  the  day-time;  and,  during  night,  the  eye 
is  so  overpowered  by  its  brilliancy  as  to  prevent  its  surface  and 
margin  from  being  distinctly  perceived.  Were  we  to  indulge 
our  imaginations  on  this  subject,  this  circumstance  might  lead 
us  to  form  various  conceptions  of  the  glory  and  magnificence  of 
the  diversified  objects  which  may  be  presented  to  the  view  of 
the  intellectual  beings  who  inhabit  this  world;  but,  in  the  mean- 
time, we  have  no  sufficient  data  to  warrant  us  in  indulging  in 
conjectural  speculations.  The  apparent  size  of  the  sun,  as  seen 
from  Venus,  compared  with  his  .magnitude  as  seen  from  the 
earth,  is  represented  in  the  following  figure;  the  larger  circle 
showing  the  size  of  the  sun  from  Venus. 


Fig.  24. 


88 


TEMPERATURE  OF  VENUS. 


With  regard  to  the  heat  in  this  planet,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  facts  formerly  stated,  (page  56,)  it  may  be  modified 
by  the  constitution  of  its  atmosphere  and  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stances which  compose  its  surface,  so  that  its  intensity  may  not 
be  so  great  as  we  might  imagine  from  its  nearness  to  the  sun. 
Even  on  the  supposition  that  the  intensity  of  the  heat  of  any 
body  is  inversely  as  the  square  of  its  distance  from  the  sun,  it 
has  been  calculated  that  the  greatest  heat  in  Venus  exceeds  the 
heat  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  or  of  Sumatra, 
about  as  much  as  the  heat  in  those  places  exceeds  that  of  the 
Orkney  Islands,  or  that  of  the  city  of  Stockholm;  and,  there- 
fore, at  60  degrees  north  latitude  on  that  planet,  if  its  axis  were 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  the  heat  would  not  ex- 
ceed the  greatest  heat  of  the  earth,  and,  of  course,  vegetation 
like  ours  could  be  carried  on,  and  animals  of  a terrestrial  species 
might  subsist.  But  we  have  no  need  to  enter  into  such  calcula- 
tions in  order  to  prove  the  habitability  of  Venus,  since  the 
Creator  has,  doubtless,  in  this  as  well  as  in  every  other  case, 
adapted  the  structure  of  the  inhabitant  to  the  nature  of  the 
habitation. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  facts  maybe  stated: — 
Venus  revolves  in  an  orbit  which  is  433,800,000  of  miles  in 
circumference,  in  the  space  of  22 4 days  16  hours;  its  rate  of 
motion  is  therefore  about  eighty  thousand  miles  every  hour,  one 
thousand  three  hundred  and  thirty  miles  every  minute,  and 
above  twenty-two  miles  every  second.  Its  distance  from  the 
sun  is  68  millions  of  miles;  and  its  distance  from  the  earth, 
when  nearest  us,  is  about  27  millions  of  miles,  which  is  the 
nearest  approach  that  any  of  the  heavenly  bodies  (except  the 
moon)  make  to  the  earth.  Yet  this  distance,  when  considered 
by  itself,  is  very  great;  for  a cannon  ball  would  require  six 
years  and  three  months  to  move  from  the  earth  to  the  nearest 
point  of  the  orbit  of  Venus,  although  it  were  flying  every 
moment  at  the  rate  of  500  miles  an  hour,  or  12,000  miles  a day. 
Were  the  enlightened  hemisphere  of  the  planet  turned  to  the 
earth  when  it  is  in  this  nearest  point  of  its  orbit,  it  would  appear 
like  a brilliant  moon,  twenty-five  times  larger  than  it  generally 
does  to  the  naked  eye;  but  at  that  time  its  dark  side  is  turned 
to  the  sun  and  away  from  the  earth. — At  its  greatest  distance 
from  us,  it  is  163  millions  of  miles  from  the  earth.  The  period 
of  its  greatest  brightness  is  when  it  is  about  forty  degrees  from 
the  sun,  either  before  or  after  its  inferior  conjunction;  at  which 


THE  EARTH  CONSIDERED  AS  A PLANET.  89 

time  there  is  only  about  one-fourth  part  of  its  disk  that  appears 
enlightened.  In  this  position  it  may  sometimes  be  seen  with 
the  naked  eye  even  amid  the  splendours  of  noon-day.  In  the 
evening  it  casts  a distinct  shadow  on  a horizontal  plane.  Sir 
John  Herschel  remarks,  that  this  shadow,  to  be  distinguished, 
u must  be  thrown  upon  a white  ground.  An  open  window  in 
a white-washed  room  is  the  best  exposure;  in  this  situation  I 
have  observed  not  only  the  shadow,  but  the  diffracted  fringes 
edging  its  outline.” — The  density  of  Venus  compared  with  that 
of  the  sun  is  as  1 to  383,137,  according  to  La  Place’s  calcula- 
tions, while  that  of  the  earth  is  as  1 to  329,630;  so  that  the 
earth  is  somewhat  denser  than  Venus.  A body  weighing  one 
pound  on  the  earth  will  weigh  only  15  oz.  10  dr.  on  the  surface 
of  Venus. — The  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of  Venus  is  less  than 
that  of  any  of  the  other  planets;  it  amounts  to  492,000  miles, 
which  is  only  the  part  of  the  diameter  of  its  orbit,  which, 
consequently,  approaches  very  nearly  to  a circle.  The  inclina- 
tion of  its  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  3°  23'  33".  Its  mean  apparent 
diameter  is  17",  and  its  greatest  about  57^-".  Its  greatest  elonga- 
tion from  the  sun  varies  from  45°  to  47°  12'.  Its  mean  arc 
of  retrogradation , or  when  it  moves  from  east  to  west,  contrary 
to  the  order  of  the  signs,  is  16°  12',  and  its  mean  duration  forty- 
two  days,  commencing  or  ending  when  it  is  about  28°  48'  dis- 
tant from  the  sun.  Such  is  a condensed  view  of  most  of  the 
facts  in  relation  to  Venus  which  may  be  considered  as  interest- 
ing to  the  general  reader. 

III.  OF  THE  EARTH  CONSIDERED  AS  A PLANET. 

In  exhibiting  the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  it  is  not  perhaps 
absolutely  necessary  to  enter  into  any  particular  description  of 
the  earth;  but  as  it  is  the  only  planetary  body  with  which  we 
are  intimately  acquainted,  and  the  only  standard  by  which  we 
can  form  a judgment  of  the  other  planetary  globes,  and  as  it  is 
connected  with  them  in  the  same  system,  it  may  be  expedient 
to  state  a few  facts  in  relation  to  its  figure,  motion,  structure, 
and  general  arrangements. 

The  earth,  though  apparently  a quiescent  body  in  the  centre 
of  the  heavens,  is  suspended  in  empty  space,  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  the  celestial  luminaries,  and  the  spaces  of  the  firmament. 
Though  it  appears  to  our  view  to  occupy  a space  larger  than 
all  the  heavenly  orbs,  yet  it  is,  in  fact,  almost  infinitely  smaller, 


90 


FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


and  holds  a rank  only  with  the  smaller  bodies  of  the  universe; 
and,  although  it  appears  to  the  eye  of  sense  immovably  fixed 
in  the  same  position,  yet  it  is,  in  reality,  flying  through  the 
ethereal  spaces  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a thousand  miles  every 
minute,  as  we  have  already  demonstrated.  The  figure  of  the 
earth  is  now  ascertained  to  be  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid.,  very 
nearly  approaching  to  the  figure  of  a globe.  An  orange  and  a 
common  turnip  are  oblate  spheroids,  and  are  frequently  exhibited 
to  illustrate  the  figure  of  the  earth.  But  they  tend  to  convey 
an  erroneous  idea;  for,  although  a spheroid  of  ten  feet  diameter 
were  constructed  to  exhibit  the  true  figure  of  the  earth,  no  eye 
could  distinguish  the  difference  between  such  a spheroid  and  a 
perfect  globe;  since  the  difference  of  its  two  diameters  would 
scarcely  exceed  one-third  of  an  inch;  whereas,  if  its  diameters 
bore  the  same  proportion  to  each  other  as  the  two  diameters  of 
an  orange  generally  do,  its  polar  diameter  would  be  nearly  one 
foot  three  inches  shorter  than  its  equatorial. 

Before  the  time  of  Newton,  it  was  never  suspected  that  the 
figure  of  the  earth  differed  in  any  degree  from  that  of  a perfect 
sphere,  excepting  the  small  inequalities  produced  by  the  moun- 
tains and  vales.  The  first  circumstance  which  led  to  the  deter- 
mination of  its  true  figure  was  an  accidental  experiment  made 
with  a pendulum  near  the  equator.  M.  Richer,  a Frenchman, 
in  a voyage  made  to  Cayenne,  which  lies  near  the  equator,  found 
that  the  pendulum  of  his  clock  no  longer  made  its  vibrations  so 
frequently  as  in  the  latitude  of  Paris,  and  that  it  was  absolutely 
necessary  to  shorten  it  in  order  to  make  it  agree  with  the  times 
of  the  stars  passing  the  meridian.  Some  years  after  this, 
Messrs.  Deshayes  and  Yarin,  who  were  sent  by  the  French  king 
to  make  certain  astronomical  observations  near  the  equator, 
found  that  the  pendulum  at  Cayenne  made  148  vibrations  less 
in  a day  than  at  Paris,  and  that  his  clock  was  retarded,  by  that 
means,  two  minutes,  twenty-eight  seconds:  and  was  obliged  to 
make  his  pendulum  shorter  by  two  lines,  or  the  sixth  part  of  a 
Paris  inch,  in  order  to  make  the  time  agree  with  that  deduced 
from  celestial  observations.  Similar  experiments,  attended  with 
the  same  results,  were  made  at  Martinique,  St.  Domingo,  St. 
Helena,  Goree,  on  the  coasPof  Africa,  and  various  other  places, 
in  all  which  it  was  found  that  the  alteration  was  the  greatest 
under  the  equator,  and  that  it  diminished  as  the  observer  ap- 
proached the  northern  latitudes.  This  discovery,  trifling  as  it 
may  at  first  sight  appear,  opened  a new  field  of  investigation  to 


NEWTON  AND  HUYGENS  INVESTIGATIONS.  9J 

philosophic  minds;  and  there  are  perhaps  few  facts  throughout 
the  range  of  science,  from  which  so  many  curious  and  important 
truths  have  been  deduced.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  M.  Huygens 
were  among  the  first  who  perceived  the  extensive  application  of 
this  discovery,  and  the  important  results  to  which  it  might  lead. 
Newton,  whose  penetrating  eye  traced  the  fact  through  all  its 
bearings  and  remote  consequences,  at  once  perceived  that  the 
earth  must  have  some  other  figure  than  what  was  commonly 
supposed,  and  demonstrated  that  this  diminution  of  weight 
naturally  arises  from  the  earth’s  rotation  round  its  axis,  which, 
according  to  the  laws  of  circular  motion,  repels  all  heavy  bodies 
from  the  axis  of  motion;  so  that,  this  motion  being  swifter  at 
the  equator  than  in  parts  more  remote,  the  weight  of  bodies 
must  also  be  less  there  than  near  the  poles.  All  heavy  bodies, 
when  left  to  themselves,  fall  towards  the  earth  in  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon;  and  were  those  lines  continued,  they 
would  all  pass  through  the  earth’s  centre.  Every  part  of  the 
earth,  therefore,  gravitates  towards  the  centre;  and  as  this  force 
is  found  to  be  about  289  times  greater  than  that  which  arises 
from  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  a certain  balance  will  constantly 
be  maintained  between  them,  and  the  earth  will  assume  such  a 
figure  as  wrould  naturally  result  from  the  difference  of  these  two 
opposite  forces.  From  various  considerations  and  circumstances 
of  this  kind,  Newton  founded  his  sublime  calculations  on  this 
subject;  and,  as  Fontenelle  remarks,  “ determined  the  true  figure 
of  the  earth  without  quitting  his  elbow  chair.” 

Newton  and  Huygens  were  both  engaged  in  these  investiga- 
tions at  the  same  time,  unknown  to  each  other,  but  the  results  of 
their  calculations  were  nearly  alike.  They  demonstrated,  from 
the  known  laws  of  gravitation,  that  the  true  figure  of  the  earth 
was  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  flattened  at  the  poles,  and  pro- 
tuberant at  the  equator — that  the  proportion  between  its  polar 
and  equatorial  diameters  is  as  229  to  230,  and  consequently  that 
the  polar  diameter  is  shorter  than  the  equatorial  by  about  thirty- 
four  miles.*  If  these  deductions  be  nearly  correct,  it  follows 
that  a degree  of  latitude  in  the  polar  regions  must  measure  more 
than  a degree  near  the  equator.  To  determine  this  point  by 


* From  a comparison  of  the  length  of  different  degrees  of  the  meridian, 
lately  measured,  it  is  probable  that  the  difference  of  the  diameters  is  somewhat 
less  than  is  here  stated.  Its  equatorial  diameter  is  about  7934  miles,  and  its 
polar  about  7908,  the  difference  being  twenty-six  miles. 


92 


LENGTH  OF  A DEGREE  OF  THE  MERIDIAN. 


actual  measurement,  it  was  ordered  by  the  French  king  that  a 
degree  should  be  measured  both  at  the  equator  and  within  the 
polar  circle.  Messrs.  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  and  others,  were  sent 
to  the  north  of  Europe,  and  Messrs.  Bouger,  Godin,  and  La 
Condamine,  to  Peru,  in  South  America.  The  first  of  these 
companies  began  their  operations  at  Tornea,  near  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia,  in  July,  1736,  and  finished  them  in  June,  1737.  Those 
who  were  sent  to  Peru,  having  greater  difficulties  to  encounter, 
did  not  finish  their  survey  till  the  year  1741.  The  results  of 
these  measurements  were,  that  a degree  of  the  meridian  in  Lap- 
land  contains  344,627  French  feet,  and  a degree  of  the  meridian 
at  the  equator  340,606;  so  that  a degree  in  Lapland  is  4021 
French  feet,  or  4280  English  feet,  longer  than  a degree  at  the 
equator — that  is,  they  differ  about  6^  English  furlongs,  or  of 
a mile.  But  if  the  earth  had  been  a perfect  sphere,  a degree 
of  the  meridian  in  every  latitude  would  have  been  found  pre- 
cisely of  the  same  length.  This  spheroidal  figure  is  not  peculiar 
to  the  earth;  for  the  planets  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Mars,  are 
likewise  found  to  be  spheroids,  and  some  of  them  much  flatter 
at  the  poles  than  the  earth.  The  difference  between  the  polar 
and  equatorial  diameters  of  Jupiter  is  more  than  6000  miles. 

From  the  circumstances  stated  above,  we  may  learn,  that  the 
most  minute  facts  connected  with  the  system  of  nature  ought 
to  be  carefully  observed,  investigated,  and  recorded,  as  they  may 
lead  to  important  conclusions,  which,  at  first  view,  we  may  be 
unable  to  trace  or  to  appreciate.  For  in  the  system  of  the 
material  world,  the  greatest  and  most  sublime  effects  are  some- 
times produced  from  apparently  simple,  and  even  trivial  causes. 
Who  could  have  imagined  that  such  a simple  circumstance  as 
the  retardation  of  clocks  in  southern  climes,  and  the  shortening 
or  lengthening  of  a pendulum,  would  have  led  to  such  an  im- 
portant discovery  as  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth?  Hence,  we 
may  conclude,  that  if  ten  thousands  of  rational  observers  of  the 
facts  of  nature  were  to  be  added  to  those  who  now  exist,  many 
parts  of  the  scenery  of  the  universe  which  are  now  involved 
in  darkness  and  mystery  might  ere  long  be  unfolded  to  our  view. 

General  Aspect  of  the  Earth's  Surface . — The  most  prominent 
and  distinguishing  feature  of  the  surface  of  our  globe  is  the  two 
bands  of  land  and  of  water  into  which  it  is  divided.  These 
bands  present  a somewhat  irregular  appearance  and  form,  but 
their  greatest  length  is  from  north  to  south.  One  of  these  bands 
of  land,  generally  denominated  the  eastern  continent,  com- 


GENERAL  ASPECT  OF  THE  EARTH’S  SURFACE. 


93 


prebends  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  and  extends  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  on  the  south,  to  the  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Kamtschatka,  in  which  direction  its  length  measures  about 
10,000  miles.  Its  greatest  breadth,  from  Corea,  or  the  eastern 
parts  of  Chinese  Tartary,  to  the  western  extremity  of  Africa, 
is  about  9000  miles.  The  other  band  of  earth  is  the  western 
continent,  comprehending  North  and  South  America,  lying  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  on  the  east,  and  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the 
west.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  8000  miles,  from  north  to 
south,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Nootka  Sound  to  New- 
foundland, North  America,  and  from  Cape  Blanco  to  St.  Roque, 
South  America,  is  about  3000  miles.  Besides  these  two  larger 
bands  of  land,  there  is  the  large  island  of  New  Holland,  which 
is  2600  miles  long,  and  2000  broad,  which  might  be  reckoned  a 
third  continent — along  with  many  thousands  of  islands,  of  every 
form  and  size,  which  are  scattered  throughout  the  different  seas 
and  oceans.  The  whole  of  these  solid  parts  of  our  globe  com- 
prehends an  area  of  about  49  millions  of  square  miles,  or  about 
one-fourth  of  the  superficies  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  which 
contains  about  197  millions  of  square  miles.  Were  all  these 
portions  of  the  land  peopled  with  inhabitants  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  in  England,  the  population  of  the  globe  would  amount 
to  thirteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of 
human  beings,  which  is  more  than  seventeen  times  its  present 
number  of  inhabitants.  Yet,  strange  to  tell,  this  world  has,  in 
all  ages,  been  the  scene  of  w^ars,  bloodshed,  and  contests  for 
small  patches  of  territory,  although  the  one-seventeenth  part  of 
it  is  not  yet  inhabited ! 

There  is  a striking  correspondence  between  two  sides  of  the 
two  continents,  to  which  we  have  adverted,  the  prominent  parts 
of  the  one  corresponding  to  the  indentings  of  the  other.  If  we 
look  at  a terrestrial  globe,  or  a map  of  the  world,  we  shall  per- 
ceive that  the  projection  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  nearly 
corresponds  with  the  opening  between  North  and  South  America, 
opposite  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  that  the  projection  in  South 
America,  about  Cape  St.  Roque  and  St.  Salvador,  nearly  corre- 
sponds with  the  opening  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea;  so  that,  if  we 
could  conceive  the  two  continents  brought  into  contact,  the 
openings  to  which  I have  referred  would  be  nearly  filled  up,  so 
as  to  form  one  compact  continent.  The  Gulf  of  Guinea  would 
be  nearly  blocked  up  with  the  eastern  projection  of  South 
America,  and  a large  gulf  formed  between  Brazil  and  the  land 


94  CORRESPONDENCE  BETWEEN  THE  TWO  CONTINENTS. 


to  the  westward  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Gulf  of 
Mexico  would  be  formed  into  a kind  of  inland  lake,  and  Nova 
Scotia  and  Newfoundland  would  block  up  a portion  of  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  and  the  English  Channel,  while  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  would  block  up  the  entrance  to  Davis’s  Straits.  A con- 
sideration of  these  circumstances  renders  it  not  altogether  im- 
probable that  these  continents  were  originally  conjoined,  and 
that  at  some  former  physical  revolution  or  catastrophe  they  may 
have  been  rent  asunder  by  some  tremendous  power,  when  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  rushed  in  between  them,  and  left  them  sepa- 
rated as  we  now  behold  them.  That  Power  which  is  said  to 
“ remove  the  mountains,”  which  “ shaketh  the  earth  out  of  her 
place,”  and  causeth  “ the  pillars  thereof  to  tremble,”  is  adequate 
to  produce  such  an  effect  ; and  effects  equally  stupendous  appear 
to  have  been  produced  when  the  waters  of  the  great  deep 
covered  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains,  when  the  solid  strata 
of  the  earth  were  bent  and  disrupted,  and  rocks  of  enormous 
size  transported  from  one  region  of  the  earth  to  another.  There 
appears  no  great  improbability  in  the  supposition  that  such  an 
event  may  have  taken  place  at  the  universal  deluge,  when  the 
original  constitution  of  the  globe  seems  to  have  undergone  a 
dreadful  change  and  disarrangement. 

Between  the  two  continents  now  mentioned  are  two  immense 
bands  of  water,  extending  nearly  from  the  northern  to  the 
southern  extremities  of  the  globe,  one  of  which  is  10,000,  and 
the  other  3000  miles  broad.  These  vast  collections  of  water 
surround  the  continents  and  islands,  and  form  numerous  seas, 
straits,  gulfs,  and  bays,  which  indent  and  diversify  the  coasts 
through  every  region  of  the  earth.  They  occupy  a square  sur- 
face of  about  148  millions  of  miles,  forming  about  three-fourths 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  containing  about  296  millions  of 
cubical  miles  of  water,  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  globe  to  the 
depth  of  2600  yards.  This  vast  superabundance  of  water,  com- 
pared with  the  quantity  of  land,  it  is  probable,  is  peculiar  to  our 
globe,  and  that  no  such  arrangement  exists  on  the  surface  of  the 
other  planets  of  our  system.  It  is  probable  that  such  an  ex- 
tensive ocean  did  not  exist  at  the  period  of  the  original  formation 
of  the  earth,  and  that  such  a disproportionate  accumulation  of 
water  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  deluge.  The  present 
constitution  of  the  earth,  and  the  disproportion  of  the  water  to 
the  dry  land,  are  circumstances  more  adapted  to  a race  of 


MOUNTAINS  AND  RIVERS.  95 

fallen  intelligences,  than  to  beings  in  a state  of  innocence,  and 
adorned  with  the  image  of  their  Creator. 

Besides  the  circumstances  now  stated,  the  earth  is  diversified 
with  extensive  ranges  of  mountains,  which  stretch  in  different 
directions  along  the  continents  and  islands,  rearing  their  sum- 
mits, in  some  instances,  several  miles  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  and  diversifying  in  various  modes  the  landscape  of  the 
earth.  From  these  mountains  flow  hundreds  of  majestic  rivers, 
some  of  them  more  than  2000  miles  in  length,  fertilizing  the 
countries  through  which  they  flow,  and  forming  a medium  of 
communication  between  the  inland  countries  and  the  ocean.  The 
atmosphere  is  thrown  around  the  whole  of  this  terraqueous  mass, 
by  means  of  which,  and  the  operation  of  the  solar  heat,  a portion 
of  the  ocean  is  carried  up  to  the  region  of  the  clouds  in  the  form 
of  vapour,  which  diffuses  itself  over  every  region  of  the  earth, 
and  is  again  condensed  into  rains  and  dews  to  supply  the  sources 
of  the  rivers,  and  to  distribute  fertility  throughout  every  land. 
This  atmosphere  is  the  region  of  the  winds , whether  fanning 
the  earth  with  gentle  breezes,  or  heaving  the  ocean  into  moun- 
tainous billows,  and  overturning  forests  by  hurricanes  and 
tornadoes.  It  is  the  theatre  where  thunders  roll  and  lightnings 
flash,  where  the  fiery  meteor  sweeps  along  with  its  luminous 
train,  and  where  the  aurorce  boreales  display  their  fantastic 
coruscations.  It  is  constituted  by  a law  of  the  Creator  to  sus- 
tain the  principle  of  life,  and  to  preserve  in  existence  and  in 
comfort,  not  only  man,  but  all  the  tribes  of  animated  existence 
which  traverse  the  regions  of  earth,  air,  or  sea,  without  the 
benign  influence  of  which,  this  globe  would  be  soon  left  without 
a living  inhabitant. 

Were  the  earth  to  be  viewed  from  a point  in  the  heavens, 
suppose  from  the  moon,  it  would  present  a pretty  variegated,  and 
sometimes  a mottled,  appearance.  The  distinction  between  its 
seas,  oceans,  continents,  and  islands,  would  be  clearly  marked, 
which  would  appear  like  brighter  and  darker  spots  upon  its  disk. 
The  continents  would  appear  bright,  and  the  ocean  of  a darker 
hue,  because  water  absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  solar  light 
that  falls  upon  it.  The  level  plains  (excepting,  perhaps,  such 
spots  as  the  Arabian  deserts  of  sand,)  would  appear  of  a some- 
what darker  colour  than  the  more  elevated  and  mountainous 
regions,  as  we  find  to  be  the  case  on  the  surface  of  the  moon. 
The  islands  would  appear  like  small  bright  specks  on  the  darker 


96 


DIFFERENT  ASPECTS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


surface  of  the  ocean;  and  the  lakes  and  Mediterranean  seas  like 
darker  spots,  or  broad  streaks  intersecting  the  brighter  parts,  or 
the  land.  By  its  revolution  round  its  axis,  successive  portions 
of  its  surface  would  be  brought  into  view,  and  present  a different 
aspect  from  the  parts  which  preceded.  Were  the  first  view 
taken  when  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  appeared  in  the 
centre,  almost  the  whole  hemisphere  of  the  earth  would  present 
a dull  and  sombre  aspect,  except  a few  small  spots  near  the 
middle,  where  the  Marquesas,  the  Sandwich,  and  the  Society 
Isles  are  situated,  and  some  bright  streaks  on  its  north-eastern, 
north-western,  and  south-western  borders,  where  the  north- 
western parts  of  America,  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and 
New  Holland  are  situated.  In  about  six  hours  afterwards,  the 
whole  of  Asia,  with  its  large  islands,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  New 
Guinea,  &c.,  would  come  into  view  and  diversify  the  scene, 
having  a portion  of  the  Pacific  on  the  east,  and  the  Indian 
ocean  and  a portion  of  Africa  on  the  west.  In  another  six 
hours,  the  whole  of  Africa  and  Europe,  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and 
the  eastern  part  of  South  America,  would  make  their  appear- 
ance. And  in  six  hours  more,  the  whole  of  North  and  South 
America  would  appear  near  the  centre  of  the  view,  having  the 
Atlantic  ocean  on  the  east,  and  the  Pacific  on  the  west.  All 
these  views  would  present  a considerable  variety  of  aspect,  but 
in  every  one  of  them  the  darker  shades  would  appear  to  cover 
the  greater  part  of  the  view,  except,  perhaps,  in  that  view  which 
takes  in  the  whole  of  Asia  and  part  of  Africa  and  Europe. 
Each  of  these  views  would  occasionally  present  a mottled  and 
unstable  appearance,  on  account  of  the  numerous  strata  of  clouds 
suspended  over  different  regions,  which  would  be  seen  frequently 
to  shift  their  positions.  These  clouds,  when  dense,  and  accumu- 
lated over  particular  countries,  would  prevent  certain  portions 
of  the  land  and  water  from  being  distinctly  perceived.  They 
would  sometimes  appear  like  bright  spots  upon  the  ocean,  by  the 
reflection  of  the  solar  rays  from  their  upper  surfaces,  and  some- 
times like  dark  spots  over  the  land.  The  following  figures  re- 
present two  of  the  views  to  which  we  have  alluded: — 


INTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


97 


Fig.  25.  Fig.  26. 


Fig.  25  represents  the  appearance  of  the  earth  when  the 
middle  of  the  Pacific  is  in  the  centre  of  the  view.  Fig.  26  is 
the  appearance  when  the  Atlantic  is  presented  to  the  spectator's 
eye,  with  South  and  part  of  North  America  on  the  west,  and 
Europe,  Africa,  and  a portion  of  Asia  on  the  east. 

Internal  Structure  of  the  Earth . — We  are  now  pretty  well 
acquainted  with  the  general  outline  of  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  the  different  ramifications  of  land  and  water  with  which  it  is 
diversified,  except  those  regions  which  lie  adjacent  to  the  poles. 
But  our  knowledge  of  its  internal  structure  is  extremely  limited. 
The  deepest  mines  that  have  ever  been  excavated  do  not  descend 
above  a mile  from  the  surface,  and  this  depth  is  no  more,  com- 
pared with  the  thickness  of  the  earth,  than  the  slight  scratch  of 
a pin  upon  a large  artificial  globe,  compared  with  the  extent  of 
its  semi-diameter.  What  species  of  materials  are  to  be  found 
two  or  three  thousand  miles  within  its  surface,  or  even  within 
fifty  miles,  will,  perhaps,  be  for  ever  beyond  the  power  of 
mortals  to  determine.  Various  researches,  however,  have  been 
lately  made  as  to  the  materials  which  compose  its  upper  strata, 
immediately  beneath  the  surface,  and  the  order  in  which  they 
are  arranged.  From  these  researches,  we  learn  that  substances 
of  various  kinds  compose  the  exterior  crust  of  the  globe,  and 
that  they  are  thrown  together  in  almost  every  possible  position ; 
some  horizontal,  some  vertical,  and  some  inclined  to  each  other 
at  various  angles.  Geologists  have  arranged  the  strata  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth  into  various  classes:  1.  Primary  rocks,  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  formed  before  all  the  others,  and 

H 


98 


CHANGES  IN  THE  STATE  OF  OUR  GLOBE. 


which  compose,  as  it  were,  the  great  frame  or  ground-work  of 
our  globe.  These  rocks  are  composed  of  granite , gneis , mica- 
slat e,  and  other  substances;  they  form  the  most  lofty  mountains, 
and  at  the  same  time  extend  themselves  downwards  beneath  all 
the  other  formations,  as  if  all  the  materials  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe  rested  upon  them  as  a basis.  2.  Transition  rocks,  which 
are  above  the  primitive,  and  rest  upon  them,  and  are  composed 
of  the  larger  fragments  of  the  primary  rocks,  consolidated  into 
continuous  masses.  These  rocks  contain  the  remains  of  certain 
organized  beings,  such  as  sea-shells,  while  no  such  remains  are 
found  among  the  rocks  termed  primitive.  3.  Secondary  rocks, 
which  lie  upon  the  primary  and  transition  rocks,  and  which 
appear  like  deposits  from  the  other  species  of  rocks.  The  sub- 
stances which  this  class  of  rocks  contain  are,  secondary  lime- 
stone, coal,  oolite,  sandstone,  and  chalk.  There  are  likewise 
tertiary , basaltic , and  volcanic  rocks,  and  alluvial  and  diluvial 
deposites.  But  it  would  be  foreign  to  our  present  subject  to 
descend  into  particulars. 

From  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  these  and 
various  other  circumstances  connected  with  the  constitution  of 
the  earth,  it  has  been  concluded  that  important  changes  and 
astonishing  revolutions  have  taken  place  in  its  physical  struc- 
ture since  the  period  of  its  formation;  that  rocks  of  a huge 
size  have  been  rolled  from  one  region  of  the  globe  to  another, 
and  been  carried  up  even  to  the  tops  of  hills,  and  elevated  por- 
tions of  the  land;  that  the  hardest  masses  of  its  rocks  have  been 
fractured,  and  its  strata  bent  and  dislocated;  that  in  certain 
places  sea  shells,  sharks’  teeth,  the  bones  of  elephants,  the  hip- 
popotamus, oxen,  deer,  and  other  animals,  are  found  mingled 
together,  as  if  they  had  been  swept  along  by  some  overpowering 
force,  amidst  a general  convulsion  of  nature;  that  the  bed  of  the 
ocean  has  been  raised  up  by  the  operation  of  some  tremendous 
power,  so  as  to  form  a portion  of  the  habitable  surface  of  the 
globe;  and  that  the  loftiest  mountains  were  once  covered  by  the 
waters  of  the  ocean.  From  these  and  other  considerations,  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  the  earth  now  presents  a very  diffe- 
rent aspect  from  what  it  did  when  it  first  proceeded  from  the 
creating  hand  of  its  Maker,  and  when  all  things  were  pro- 
nounced by  him  to  be  “ very  good.”  The  earth,  therefore,  as 
presently  constituted,  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  a standard 
or  model  to  be  compared  with  the  other  planets  of  our  system, 
and  by  which  to  judge  whether  they  appear  to  be  fitted  for 


DENSITY  OF  THE  EARTH. 


99 


being  the  abodes  of  intelligent  beings.  For,  in  its  present  state, 
notwithstanding  the  numerous  objects  of  sublimity  and  beauty 
strewed  over  its  surface,  it  can  be  considered  as  little  more  than 
a majestic  ruin — a ruin,  however,  sufficiently  accommodated  to 
the  character  of  the  majority  of  inhabitants  who  have  hitherto 
occupied  its  surface,  whose  conduct,  in  all  ages,  has  been  marked 
with  injustice,  devastation,  and  bloodshed. 

Density  of  the  Earth . — In  the  year  1773,  Dr.  Maskeline,  the 
astronomer  royal,  along  with  other  gentlemen,  made  a number 
of  observations  on  the  mountain  Schehallien,  in  Scotland,  to 
determine  the  attraction  of  mountains . After  four  months  being 
spent  in  the  necessary  arrangements  and  observations,  it  was 
ascertained  beyond  dispute  that  the  mountain  exerted  a sensible 
attraction,  leaving  no  hesitation  as  to  the  conclusion,  that  every 
mountain  and  every  particle  of  earth  is  endowed  with  the  same 
property,  in  proportion  to  its  quantity  of  matter.  The  observa- 
tions were  made  on  both  sides  of  the  mountain,  and  from  these 
it  appears  that  the  sum  of  the  two  contrary  attractions  exerted 
upon  the  plumbline  of  the  instruments  was  equal  to  eleven 
seconds  and  a half.  Professor  Playfair,  more  than  thirty  years 
afterwards,  from  personal  observation,  endeavoured  to  deter- 
mine the  specific  gravity  or  density  of  the  materials  of  which 
Schehallien  is  composed,  and,  after  numerous  experiments  and 
calculations,  it  was  concluded  that  “ the  mean  density  of  the 
earth  is  nearly  double  the  density  of  the  rocks  which  compose 
that  mountain,”  which  seem  to  be  considerably  more  dense  than 
the  mean  of  those  which  form  the  exterior  crust  of  the  earth. 
The  density  of  these  rocks  was  reckoned  to  be  times  the 
weight  of  water;  consequently  the  density  of  the  earth  is  to  that 
of  water  as  five  to  one— that  is,  the  whole  earth,  bulk  for  bulk, 
is  five  times  the  weight  of  water , so  that  the  earth,  as  now  con- 
stituted, would  counterpoise  five  globes  of  the  same  size  com- 
posed of  materials  of  the  same  specific  gravity  as  water.  As 
the  mean  density,  therefore,  of  the  whole  of  the  earth’s  surface, 
including  the  ocean,  cannot  be  above  twice  the  density  of  water, 
it  follows  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  must  have  a much  greater 
density  than  even  five  times  the  weight  of  water,  to  counter- 
balance the  want  of  weight  on  its  surface.  Hence  we  are  neces- 
sarily led  to  conclude,  that  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth,  near 
the  centre,  must  consist  of  very  dense  substances,  denser  than 
even  iron,  lead,  or  silver,  and  that  no  great  internal  cavity  can 
exist  within  it,  as  some  theorists  have  supposed,  unless  we  could 

h 2 


100 


VARIETY  OF  SEASONS. 


suppose  that  most  of  the  materials,  far  below  the  foundations  of 
the  ocean,  are  much  denser  than  the  heaviest  metallic  substances 
yet  discovered.  La  Place  has  attempted  to  estimate  the  earth’s 
density  near  the  centre  on  the  following  data : If  5f  be  its  mean 
density,  and  2-J,  and  2f,  be  assumed  as  its  superficial 

densities,  then,  on  the  theory  of  compressibility,  the  density  at 
the  centre  will  be  13^,  144,  1 5f,  and  20T^  respectively.  The 
least  of  these  specific  gravities  ( 1 34)  is  nearly  double  the  density 
of  zinc,  iron,  and  the  ore  of  lead;  and  the  greatest  (20-^)  is 
nearly  equal  to  purified  and  forged  platina , which  is  the  most 
ponderous  substance  hitherto  discovered.  Yet  this  ponderous 
globe,  with  all  the  materials  on  its  surface,  is  carried  through 
the  regions  of  space  with  a velocity  of  sixteen  hundred  thousand 
miles  every  day. 

Variety  of  Seasons. — The  annual  revolution  of  the  earth  is 
accomplished  in  365  days,  5 hours,  48  minutes,  and  51  seconds. 
In  the  course  of  this  revolution,  the  inhabitants  of  every  clime 
experience,  though  at  different  times,  a variety  of  seasons. 
Spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter,  follow  each  other  in  con- 
stant succession,  diversifying  the  scenery  of  nature,  and  distin- 
guishing the  different  periods  of  the  year.  In  those  countries 
which  lie  in  the  southern  hemisphere  of  the  globe,  November, 
December,  and  January  are  the  summer  months,  while  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  where  we  reside,  these  are  our  months  of 
winter,  when  the  weather  is  coldest,  and  the  days  shortest.  In 
the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres  the  seasons  are  opposite 
to  each  other,  so  that  when  it  is  spring  in  the  one,  it  is  autumn 
in  the  other;  when  it  is  winter  in  southern  latitudes,  it  is  sum- 
mer with  us.  During  six  months,  from  March  2 1 to  Sept.  23, 
the  sun  shines  without  intermission  on  the  north  pole,  so  that 
there  is  no  night  there  during  all  that  interval,  while  the  south 
pole  is  all  this  time  enveloped  in  darkness.  From  September  to 
March  the  south  pole  enjoys  the  solar  light,  while  the  north,  in 
its  turn,  is  deprived  of  the  sun  and  left  in  darkness.  The  sun 
is  at  different  distances  from  the  earth  at  different  periods  of  the 
year,  owing  to  the  earth’s  moving  in  an  elliptical  orbit;  but  it  is 
not  upon  this  circumstance  that  the  seasons  depend.  For  on  the 
first  of  January  we  are  more  than  three  millions  of  miles  nearer 
the  sun  than  on  the  first  of  July,  when  the  heat  of  our  summer 
is  generally  greatest.  The  true  cause  of  the  variation  of  the 
seasons  consists  in  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit ; or,  in  other  words,  to  the  ecliptic . If  its 


INCLINATION  OF  THE  EARTH’S  AXIS. 


101 


axis  were  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  the  equator  and  the  orbit 
would  coincide;  and  as  the  sun  is  always  in  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  it  would  in  this  case  be  always  over  the  equator;  the 
two  poles  would  be  always  enlightened,  and  there  would  be  no 
diversity  of  days  and  nights,  and  but  one  season  throughout  the 
year.  What  is  meant  by  the  inclination  of  the  axis  will  appear 
from  the  following  figures  : — 


Fig.  27.  Fig.  28. 


Let  A B represent  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  or  the  earth’s 
orbit,  and  CD  (Fig.  28)  the  axis  of  the  earth,  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  66^°  to  the  ecliptic,  and  23^°  from  the  perpendicular 
E F,  or  the  axis  of  the  ecliptic,  and  it  will  represent  the  posi- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  earth  with  respect  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit.  Fig.  27  represents  the  axis  of  the  earth,  G II,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ecliptic.  As  the  sun  can  enlighten  only  the  one- 
half  of  the  globe  at  a time,  it  is  evident  that  if  his  rays  come  in 
the  direction  from  B,  fig.  28,  they  cannot  illuminate  both  poles 
at  once.  While  the  north  polar  circle,  between  E and  C,  is 
enlightened,  the  regions  around  the  south  pole,  between  D and 
F,  must  necessarily  remain  in  the  dark.  But  if  the  axis  of  the 
earth  were  perpendicular  to  its  orbit,  as  exhibited  in  fig.  27, 
then  both  poles  would  constantly  be  enlightened  at  the  same 
time.  The  following  figure  will  more  particularly  show  the 
effect  of  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  during  its  pro- 
gress through  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  ; — 


102 


INCLINATION  OF  THE  EARTH’S  AXIS. 

Fig.  29. 


fci 


T.ibra 


INCLINATION  OF  THE  EARTH*S  AXIS. 


103 


In  this  representation,  the  ellipse  exhibits  the  earth’s  orbit, 
seen  at  a distance,  the  eye  being  supposed  to  be  elevated  a little 
above  the  plane  of  it.  The  earth  is  represented  in  each  of  the 
twelve  signs,  with  the  names  of  the  months  annexed.  In  each 
of  the  figures,  e is  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and  e d , its  axis,  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  the  orbit.  P is  the  north  pole  of  the 
earth;  Pm , its  axis,  about  which  the  earth  daily  turns  from 
west  to  east;  P C e shows  the  angle  of  its  inclination.  During 
the  whole  of  its  course,  the  axis  keeps  always  in  a parallel  posi- 
tion, or  points  always  to  the  same  parts  of  the  heavens.  If  it 
were  otherwise,  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  shifted  its  position  in  any 
considerable  degree,  the  most  appalling  and  disastrous  effects 
might  be  produced;  the  ocean,  in  many  places,  might  overflow 
the  land,  and  rush  from  the  equator  towards  the  polar  regions, 
and  produce  a general  devastation  and  destruction  to  myriads 
of  its  inhabitants.  If  the  axis  pointed  always  to  the  centre  of 
its  orbit,  so  as  to  be  continually  varying  its  direction,  all  the 
objects  around  us  would  appear  to  whirl  about  in  confusion; 
there  would  be  no  fixed  polar  points  to  guide  the  mariner,  nor 
could  his  course  be  directed  through  the  ocean  by  any  of  the 
stars  of  heaven. 

When  the  earth  is  in  the  first  point  of  Libra,  the  sun  appears 
in  the  opposite  point  of  the  ecliptic,  at  Aries,  about  the  21st  of 
March;  and  when  the  earth  is  in  Aries,  the  sun,  S9  will  appear 
in  Libra,  about  the  23rd  of  September.  At  these  times  both 
poles  of  the  earth  are  enlightened,  and  the  day  and  night  are 
equal  in  all  places.  When  the  earth  has  moved  from  Libra  to 
Capricorn,  its  axis  keeping  always  the  same  direction,  all  places 
within  the  north  polar  circle,  P e , are  illuminated  throughout  the 
whole  diurnal  revolution,  at  which  time  the  inhabitants  of  those 
places  have  the  sun  more  than  twenty-four  hours  above  the 
horizon.  This  happens  at  the  time  of  our  summer  solstice,  or 
about  the  21st  of  June,  at  which  time  the  south  polar  circle, 
d m , is  in  darkness.  While  the  earth  is  moving  from  Libra, 
through  Capricorn,  to  Aries,  the  north  pole,  P,  being  in  the 
illuminated  hemisphere,  will  have  six  months  continual  day; 
but  while  the  earth  passes  from  Aries,  through  Cancer  to  Libra, 
the  north  pole  will  be  in  darkness,  and  have  continual  night; 
the  south  pole  at  the  same  time  enjoying  continual  day.  When 
the  earth  is  at  Cancer,  the  sun  appears  at  Capricorn,  at  which 
season  the  nights  in  the  northern  hemisphere  will  as  much  ex- 


104 


THE  SEASONS  ILLUSTRATED. 


ceed  the  days  as  the  days  exceeded  the  nights  when  the  earth 
was  in  the  opposite  point  of  its  orbit. 

Our  summer  is  nearly  eight  days  longer  than  our  winter. 
By  summer  is  meant  the  time  that  passes  between  March  21st 
and  September  23rd,  or  between  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equi- 
noxes; and  by  winter,  the  time  between  September  23rd  and 
March  21st,  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes.  The  portion 
of  the  earth’s  orbit  which  lies  north  of  the  equinoctial  contains 
184  degrees,  while  that  portion  which  is  south  of  the  equinoctial 
contains  only  176  degrees,  which  is  eight  degrees  less  than  the 
other  portion,  which  is  the  reason  why  the  sun  is  nearly  eight 
days  longer  on  the  north  of  the  equator  than  on  the  south.  In 
our  summer,  the  sun’s  apparent  motion  is  through  the  six 
northern  signs — -Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  and 
Virgo;  and  in  our  winter,  through  the  six  southern.  In  the 
former  case,  from  March  21st  to  September  23rd,  the  sun  is 
about  186  days  11  hours  in  passing  through  the  northern  signs, 
and  only  178  days  18  hours  in  passing  through  the  southern 
signs,  from  September  23rd  to  March  21st,  the  difference  being 
about  7 days  1 7 hours.  The  reason  of  this  difference  is,  that 
the  earth  moves  in  an  elliptical  orbit,  one  portion  of  which  is 
nearer  the  sun  than  another,  in  consequence  of  which,  the  sun’s 
apparent  motion  is  slower  while  it  appears  in  the  northern  signs 
than  while  it  traverses  the  southern  ones. 

As  the  sun  is  further  from  us  in  summer,  than  in  winter,  it 
may  naturally  be  asked  why  we  experience  the  greatest  heats 
in  the  former  season.  The  following,  among  other  reasons,  may 
be  assigned,  which  will  partly  account  for  this  effect: — 1.  The 
sun  rises  to  a much  higher  altitude  above  the  horizon  in  sum- 
mer than  in  winter,  and,  consequently,  its  rays  falling  more 
directly  and  less  oblique,  the  thicker,  or  denser,  will  they  be, 
and  so  much  the  hotter,  when  no  counteracting  causes,  from 
local  circumstances , exist.  Thus,  suppose  a parcel  of  rays, 
A B C D E (fig.  30),  to  fall  perpendicularly  on  any  plane 
(D  C)  and  obliquely  on  another  plane  ( E C);  it  is  evident  they 
will  occupy  a smaller  space  ( D C)  in  the  former  than  ( E C ) in 
the  latter;  and  consequently,  their  heat  would  be  much  greater 
in  the  lesser  space,  D C,  than  in  the  larger  space,  E C.  If, 
instead  of  lines,  we  suppose  D C and  E C to  be  the  diameters 
of  surfaces,  then  the  heat  on  those  surfaces  will  be  inversely  as 
the  squares  of  the  diameters.  Let  DC  be  20,  and  E C 28;  the 
square  of  20  is  400,  and  the  square  of  28  is  784,  which  is  nearly 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  SEASONS. 


105 


Fig.  30. 


double  the  square  of  D C,  and  consequently  there  is  nearly 
double  the  quantity  of  heat  on  D C compared  with  that  on  E C, 
in  so  far  as  it  depends  on  the  direct  influence  of  the  solar  rays; 
but  other  causes  may  concur  either  to  diminish  or  increase  the 
heat  in  certain  places,  to  which  I have  already  alluded  when 
describing  the  phenomena  of  Mercury.  2.  The  greater  length 
of  the  day  contributes  to  augment  the  heat  in  summer;  for  the 
earth  and  the  air  are  heated  by  the  sun  in  the  day-time,  more 
than  they  are  cooled  in  the  night,  and  on  this  account  the  heat 
will  go  on  increasing  in  the  summer,  and  for  the  same  reason 
will  decrease  in  winter,  when  the  nights  are  longer  than  the 
days.  3.  Another  reason  is,  that  in  summer,  when  the  sun 
rises  to  a great  altitude,  his  rays  pass  through  a much  smaller 
portion  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are  less  refracted  and  weakened 
by  it  than  when  they  fall  more  obliquely  on  the  earth,  and  pass 
through  the  dense  vapours  near  the  horizon. 

The  cause  of  the  variety  of  the  seasons  can  be  exhibited  with 
more  clearness  and  precision  by  means  of  machinery  than  by 
verbal  descriptions;  and  therefore  those  whose  conceptions  are 
not  clear  and  well  defined  on  this  subject,  should  have  recourse 
to  orreries  and  planetariums,  which  exhibit  the  celestial  motions 
by  wheel-work.  There  is  a small  instrument,  called  a Tellurian , 
which  has  been  long  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Jones,  Holborn, 
London,  which  conveys  a pretty  clear  idea  of  the  motions  and 
phases  of  the  moon,  the  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit,  and  the  changes  of  the  seasons.  It  may  be 
procured  at  different  prices,  from  \l.  85.  to  4 Z.  14s.  6d.,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  the  quantity  of  the  wheel-work. 

The  subject  of  the  seasons,  and  the  variety  of  phenomena  they 


106 


THE  SEASONS  NOT  A PART  OF  THE 


exhibit,  have  frequently  been  the  themes  both  of  the  philosopher 
and  the  poet,  who  have  expatiated  on  the  beauty  of  the  contri- 
vance, and  the  benignant  effects  they  produce;  and  therefore 
they  conclude  that  other  planets  enjoy  the  same  vicissitudes, 
and  seasons,  similar  or  analogous  to  ours.  But  although,  in  the 
'present  constitution  of  our  globe , there  are  many  benign  agencies 
which  accompany  the  revolutions  of  the  seasons,  which  are 
essential  to  our  happiness  in  the  circumstances  in  which  we 
now  exist,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  the  seasons,  as 
they  now  operate , formed  a part  of  the  original  arrangements  of 
our  terrestrial  system.  Man  was  at  first  created  in  a state  of 
innocence,  and  adorned  with  the  image  of  his  Maker,  and  the 
frame  of  Nature,  we  may  confidently  suppose,  was  so  arranged 
as  to  contribute  in  every  respect  both  to  his  sensitive  and  intel- 
lectual enjoyment.  But  neither  the  horrors  of  winter,  and  its 
dreary  aspect  in  northern  climes,  nor  the  scorching  heats  and 
appalling  thunder-storms  which  are  experienced  in  tropical 
climates,  are  congenial  to  the  rank  and  circumstances  of  beings 
untainted  with  sin,  and  endowed  with  moral  perfection.  Such 
physical  evils  and  inconveniences  as  the  change  of  seasons  occa- 
sionally produces,  appear  to  be  only  adapted  to  man  in  his  pre- 
sent state  of  moral  degradation.  In  the  primeval  state  of  the 
world  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  axis  of  the  earth  had  a different 
direction  from  what  it  has  at  present,  and  that,  instead  of  scorch- 
ing heats  and  piercing  colds,  and  the  gloom  and  desolations  of 
winter,  there  was  a more  mild  and  equable  temperature,  and 
something  approaching  to  what  the  poets  call  a “ perpetual 
spring.”  We  are  assured,  from  the  records  of  sacred  history, 
that  the  original  constitution  of  the  earth  has  undergone  a con- 
siderable change  and  derangement  : its  strata  were  disrupted, 
“ the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  were  broken  up,”  and  a flood 
of  waters  covered  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  mountains;  the  effects 
of  which  are  still  visible  in  almost  every  region  of  the  globe. 
At  that  memorable  era,  it  is  highly  probable,  those  changes 
were  introduced  which  diversify  the  seasons,  and  which  produce 
those  alarming  phenomena  and  destructive  effects  which  we 
now  behold  : but  as  man  advances  in  his  moral,  intellectual,  and 
religious  career,  and  in  proportion  as  his  mental  and  moral 
energies  are  made  to  bear  on  the  renovation  of  the  world,  he 
has  it  in  his  power  to  counteract  or  meliorate  many  of  the  phy- 
sical evils  which  now  exist.  Were  the  habitable  parts  of  the 
earth  universally  cultivated,  its  marshes  drained,  and  its  desolate 


earth’s  original  constitution. 


107 


wastes  reduced  to  order  and  vegetable  beauty,  by  the  hand  of 
art,  and  replenished  with  an  industrious  and  enlightened  popu- 
lation, there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  seasons  would  be  con- 
siderably meliorated,  and  many  physical  evils  prevented  with 
which  we  are  now  annoyed.  And  all  this  is  within  the  power 
of  man  to  accomplish,  provided  he  chooses  to  direct  his  wealth, 
and  his  intellectual  and  moral  energies,  into  this  channel.  If 
these  remarks  have  any  foundation  in  truth,  then  we  ought  not 
to  imagine  that  the  earth  is  a standard  by  which  we  are  to  judge 
of  the  state  of  other  planetary  worlds,  or  that  they  are  generally 
to  be  viewed  as  having  a diversity  of  seasons  similar  to  ours. 

The  following  facts,  in  addition  to  the  preceding,  may  be 
noted  in  relation  to  the  earth: — Under  the  equator,  a pendulum, 
of  a certain  form  and  length,  makes  86,400  vibrations  in  a mean 
solar  day,  but  when  transported  to  London,  the  same  pendulum 
makes  86,535  vibrations  in  the  same  time.  Hence,  it  is  con- 
cluded, that  the  intensity  of  the  force  urging  the  pendulum 
downwards  at  the  equator  is  to  that  at  London  as  86,400  to 
86,535,  or  as  1 to  1*00315;  or,  in  other  words,  that  a mass  of 
matter  at  the  equator  weighing  10,000  pounds  exerts  the  same 
pressure  on  the  ground  as  10,031^  of  the  same  pounds  trans- 
ported to  London  would  exert  there.  If  the  gravity  of  a body 
at  the  equator  be  1,  at  the  poles  it  will  be  1*00569,  or  about 
part  heavier — that  is,  a body  weighing  194  pounds  at  the 
equator,  would  weigh  195  pounds  at  the  north  pole;  so  that  the 
weight  of  bodies  is  increased  as  we  advance  from  the  equator 
to  the  poles,  owing  to  the  polar  parts  being  nearer  the  centre  of 
the  earth  than  the  equatorial,  and  the  centrifugal  force  being 
diminished.  It  is  this  variation  of  the  action  of  gravity  in  dif- 
ferent latitudes  that  causes  the  same  pendulum  to  vibrate  slower 
at  the  equator  than  in  other  places,  as  stated  above.  For  a pen- 
dulum to  oscillate  seconds  at  the  equator,  it  must  be  thirty-nine 
inches  in  length;  and  at  the  poles  39^-  inches. 

The  tropical  year,  or  the  time  which  the  sun  (or  the  earth) 
takes  in  moving  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the  ecliptic,  from 
one  equinox  to  the  same  equinox  again,  is  365  days,  5 hours, 
48  minutes,  and  51  seconds.  This  is  the  proper,  or  natural, 
year;  because  it  always  keeps  the  same  seasons  to  the  same 
months.  The  sidereal  year  is  the  space  of  time  the  sun  takes 
in  passing  from  any  fixed  star,  till  it  return  to  the  same  star 
again.  It  consists  of  365  days,  6 hours,  9 minutes,  and  11^- 
seconds,  being  20  minutes  and  20^  seconds  longer  than  the  true 


108 


OF  THE  PLANET  MARS. 


solar  year.  This  difference  is  owing  to  the  regression  of  the 
equinoctial  points,  which  is  fifty  seconds  of  a degree  every  year; 
and,  to  pass  over  this  space,  the  sun  requires  20  minutes  and 
20^  seconds.  The  earth  moves  in  an  elliptical  orbit,  whose  eccen- 
tricity , or  distance  of  its  foci  from  the  centre,  is  1,618,000  miles: 
— that  is,  the  ellipse,  or  oval  in  which  it  moves,  is  double  the 
eccentricity,  or  3,236,000  miles  longer  in  one  direction  than  it 
is  in  another,  which  is  the  reason  that  the  sun  is  further  from 
us  at  one  season  of  the  year  than  at  another.  This  is  ascertained 
from  the  variation  of  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun.  About 
the  1st  of  January,  when  he  is  nearest  the  earth,  the  apparent 
diameter  is  32  minutes,  35  seconds;  and  on  the  1st  of  July, 
when  he  is  furthest  distant,  it  is  only  31  minutes,  31  seconds. 
This  proves  that  the  earth  has  a slower  motion  in  one  part  of 
its  orbit  than  in  another.  In  January  it  moves  at  the  rate  of 
about  69,600  miles  an  hour,  but  in  July,  its  rate  of  motion 
every  hour  is  only  about  66,400  miles — a difference  of  more 
than  3000  miles  an  hour. 

IV.  OF  THE  PLANET  MARS. 

The  earth  is  placed,  in  the  solar  system,  in  a position  between 
the  orbits  of  Yen  us  and  Mars.  The  two  planets,  Mercury  and 
Venus,  which  are  placed  within  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  whose 
orbits  lie  between  it  and  the  sun,  are  termed  the  inferior  planets. 
Those  whose  orbits  lie  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  at  a greater 
distance  from  the  sun,  as  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus, 
are  termed  superior  planets.  The  motions  and  aspects  of  all  the 
superior  planets,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  differ  considerably  from 
those  which  are  exhibited  by  the  inferior.  In  the  first  place, 
the  inferior  planets  are  never  seen  but  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  sun ; none  of  them  ever  appearing  beyond  forty-eight  degrees 
of  that  luminary;  whereas  the  superior  planets  appear  at  all 
distances  from  the  sun,  even  in  the  opposite  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  or  180  degrees  from  the  point  in  which  the  sun  may 
happen  to  be  placed.  This  could  not  possibly  happen  unless 
their  orbits  were  exterior  to  that  of  the  earth,  and  the  earth 
placed  at  such  times  between  them  and  the  sun.  In  the  next 
place,  the  inferior  planets,  when  viewed  through  telescopes,  ex- 
hibit, at  different  times,  all  the  phases  of  the  moon;  but  the 
superior  planets  never  appear  either  horned  or  in  the  shape  of  a 
half-moon.  The  planets  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  never 


OF  THE  PLANET  MARS. 


109 


appear  in  any  other  shape  than  round , or  with  full  enlightened 
hemispheres.  This  circumstance  of  itself  furnishes  a proof  that 
we  see  these  planets  always  in  a direction  not  very  remote  from 
that  in  which  they  are  illuminated  by  the  solar  rays  ; and  con- 
sequently, that  we  occupy  a station  which  is  never  very  far  re- 
moved from  the  centre  of  their  orbits.  It  proves,  in  other  words, 
that  the  path  of  the  earth  round  the  sun  is  entirely  included 
within  their  orbits,  and  likewise,  that  this  circular  path  of  the 
earth  is  of  small  diameter , compared  with  their  more  expansive 
orbits.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  figures.  Let 


Fig.  31.  Fig.  32. 


S,  fig.  32,  represent  the  sun;  A B , the  orbit  of  the  earth;  and 
(7,  the  planet  Saturn,  about  ten  times  further  distant  from  the 
sun  than  the  earth  is.  Suppose  B to  represent  the  earth  at  its 
greatest  elongation  from  the  sun,  as  seen  from  Saturn — the 
angle,  S C B,  being  so  small,  it  is  evident  that  an  observer  on 


1J0 


GIBBOUS  APPEARANCE  OF  MARS. 


the  earth,  at  B , can  see  little  or  nothing  of  the  dark  hemisphere 
of  Saturn  at  C ',  but  must  perceive  the  whole  enlightened  hemi- 
sphere of  the  planet,  within  a small  fraction,  which  fraction  is 
not  perceptible  by  our  best  telescopes. 

There  is  only  one  of  the  superior  planets  that  exhibits  any 
perceptible  phase,  and  that  is,  the  planet  Mars . In  fig.  31,  S 
represents  the  sun;  E D,  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  M,  Mars;  and 
Z>,  the  earth  at  its  greatest  elongation,  as  seen  from  Mars.  In 
this  case,  the  angle,  S M D,  is  much  larger  than  in  the  former 
case,  as  Mars  is  much  nearer  to  the  earth  than  Saturn  or  any 
other  of  the  superior  planets.  Consequently,  a spectator  on  the 
earth  is  enabled  to  see  a greater  portion  of  the  dark  hemisphere 
of  Mars,  and  of  course  loses  sight  of  a corresponding  portion  of 
his  enlightened  disk.  This  is  represented  by  the  line  h i.  This 
gibbous  phase  of  Mars,  however,  differs  only  in  a small  degree 
from  a circle;  it  is  never  less  than  seven-eighths  of  the  whole 
disk.  This  phase  is  represented  in  fig.  33.  When  the  earth 
arrives  near  the  point  F \ when  Mars  appears  in  opposition  to 
the  sun,  the  whole  of  his  enlightened  hemisphere  is  then  visible. 
The  extent  of  the  gibbous  phase  of  this  planet  affords  a measure 
of  the  angle,  S M D,  and  therefore  of  the  proportion  of  the 
distance,  S M , of  Mars,  to  S D or  S F,  the  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun,  by  which  we  are  warranted  to  conclude, 
that  the  diameter  of  the  orbit  of  Mars  cannot  be  less  than  1^ 
that  of  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  The  phases  of  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
and  Uranus,  being  quite  imperceptible,  demonstrates  that  their 
orbits  must  include  both  the  orbit  of  the  earth  and  that  of  Mars; 
and,  consequently,  that  they  are  removed  at  a much  greater 
distance  than  either  of  these  bodies  from  the  centre  of  the 
system. 

Before  proceeding  to  a particular  description  of  the  phenomena 
connected  with  the  planet  Mars,  I shall  give  a brief  sketch  of 
the  motions  peculiar  to  this  planet,  which  will  serve,  in  some 
measure,  as  a specimen  of  the  apparent  motions  of  all  the  other 
superior  planets.  In  the  following  figure,  S represents  the  sun; 
A B C D,  the  planet  Mars,  in  four  different  positions  in  its 
orbit;  E F G H I K,  the  orbit  of  the  earth;  and  L M N O P, 
a segment  of  the  starry  heavens.  Suppose  Mars  at  A , and  the 
earth  at  E , directly  between  it  and  the  sun,  then  all  the  planet’s 
enlightened  hemisphere  will  be  turned  towards  the  earth,  and  it 
will  appear  like  the  full  moon.  When  the  planet  is  at  i?,  it  will 
be  gibbous , like  the  moon  a few  days  before  or  after  the  full. 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  MARS. 


Ill 


Fig.  34. 


At  C,  it  would  again  appear  wholly  enlightened,  were  it  not  in 
the  same  part  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun.  At  D , it  is  again 
gibbous,  as  seen  from  E , and  will  appear  less  gibbous  as  it  ad- 
vances towards  A . At  A , it  is  said  to  be  in  opposition  to  the 
sun,  being  seen  from  the  earth  at  E , among  the  stars  at  JV, 
while  the  sun  is  seen  in  the  opposite  direction,  E C . When  the 
planet  is  at  C,  and  the  earth  at  A,  it  is  said  to  be  in  conjunction 
with  the  sun,  being  in  the  same  part  of  the  heavens  with  that 


112 


MOTIONS  OF  MARS. 


luminary.  In  regard  to  all  the  superior  planets,  there  is  but 
one  conjunction  with  the  sun  during  the  course  of  their  revolu- 
tion; whereas  the  inferior  planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  have 
two  conjunctions,  as  formerly  explained.  Let  us  now  attend  to 
the  apparent  motions  of  this  planet.  Suppose  the  earth  at  F \ 
and  the  planet  at  rest  in  its  orbit,  at  A , it  will  be  projected  or 
seen  by  a ray  of  light  among  the  stars  at  L ; when  the  earth 
arrives  at  G , the  planet  will  appear  at  M , by  the  ray  G M ; 
and,  in  the  same  manner,  when  the  earth  is  at  H I and  K,  the 
planet  will  be  seen  among  the  stars  at  A7,  0,  and  P;  and  therefore, 
while  the  earth  moves  over  the  large  part  of  its  orbit,  F H K> 
the  planet  will  have  an  apparent  motion  from  L to  P,  among 
the  stars,  and  this  motion  is  from  west  to  east,  in  the  order  of 
the  signs,  or  in  the  same  direction  in  which  the  earth  moves; 
and  the  planet  is  then  said  to  be  direct  in  motion.  When  the 
earth  is  at  Kf  and  the  planet  appears  at  P,  for  a short  space  of 
time  it  appears  stationary , because  the  ray  of  light  proceeding 
from  P to  K,  nearly  coincides  with  the  earth’s  orbit  and  the 
direction  of  its  motion.  But  when  the  earth  moves  on  from  K 
to  P,  the  planet  will  appear  to  return  from  P to  N ; and  while 
the  earth  moves  from  E to  P,  the  planet  will  still  continue  to 
retrograde  from  N to  P,  where  it  will  again  appear  stationary 
as  before.  From  what  has  been  now  stated,  it  is  clear  that, 
since  the  part  of  the  orbit  which  the  earth  describes  in  passing 
through  F H P,  is  much  greater  than  the  arch  KEF \ and  the 
space  L P,  which  the  planet  describes  in  its  direct  and  retro- 
grade motion  is  the  same ; therefore,  the  direct  motion  is  very 
slow  from  L to  P,  in  comparison  of  the  retrograde  motion  from 
P to  P,  which  is  performed  in  much  less  time. 

In  the  above  description,  I have  supposed  the  planet  at  rest 
in  its  orbit  at  A>  in  order  to  render  the  explanation  more  easy 
and  simple,  and  the  diagram  less  complex  than  it  would  have 
been  had  we  traced  the  planet  through  different  parts  of  its 
orbit,  along  with  the  motions  of  the  earth.  But  the  appearances 
are  the  same,  whether  we  suppose  the  planet  to  be  at  rest  or  in 
motion.  The  only  difference  is  in  the  time  when  the  retrograde 
or  direct  motions  happen,  and  in  the  places  of  the  heavens  where 
the  planet  will  be  at  such  times  situated.  What  has  now  been 
stated  in  regard  to  the  apparent  motions  of  Mars,  will  apply  to 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  all  the  superior  planets,  making  allowance 
for  the  difference  of  time  in  which  their  direct  and  retrograde 
motions  are  performed.  All  the  superior  planets  are  retrograde 


MOTIONS  OF  SUPERIOR  PLANETS. 


113 


in  their  apparent  motions  when  in  opposition , and  for  some  time 
before  and  after;  but  they  differ  greatly  from  each  other,  both 
in  the  extent  of  their  arc  of  retrogradation,  in  the  duration  of 
their  retrograde  movement,  and  in  its  rapidity , when  swiftest. 
It  is  more  extensive  and  rapid  in  the  case  of  Mars  than  of 
Jupiter,  of  Jupiter  than  of  Saturn,  and  of  Saturn  than  of 
Uranus.  The  longer  the  periodic  time,  or  annual  revolution,  of 
a superior  planet,  the  more  frequent  are  its  stations  and  retro- 
gradations;  they  are  less  in  quantity,  but  continue  a longer 
time.  The  mean  arc  of  retrogradation  of  Mars,  or  from  P to  L , 
fig.  34,  is  sixteen  degrees,  twelve  minutes,  and  it  continues 
about  seventy-three  days;  while  the  mean  arc  of  retrogradation 
of  Jupiter  is  only  nine  degrees,  fifty-four  minutes,  but  its  mean 
duration  is  about  121  days.  The  time  between  one  opposition 
of  Saturn  and  another  is  378  days,  or  one  year  and  thirteen 
days.  The  time  between  two  conjunctions  or  oppositions  of 
Jupiter  is  398  days,  or  one  year  and  thirty-three  days.  But 
Mars,  after  an  opposition , does  not  come  again  into  the  same 
situation  till  after  two  years  and  fifty  days.  It  is  only  at  and 
near  the  time  of  the  opposition  of  Mars  that  we  have  the  best 
telescopic  views  of  that  planet,  as  it  is  then  nearest  the  earth; 
and,  consequently,  when  it  has  passed  its  opposition  for  any 
considerable  time,  a period  of  two  years  must  elapse  before  we 
see  it  again  in  such  a conspicuous  situation.  Hence  it  is  that 
this  planet  is  seldom  noticed  by  ordinary  observers,  except 
during  a period  of  three  or  four  months  every  two  years.  At 
all  other  times,  it  dwindles  to  the  .apparent  size  of  a small  star. 

Distance , Motion , and  Orbit  of  Mars . — This  planet  is  ascer- 
tained to  be  about  145  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun.  From 
what  we  have  stated  above,  it  is  obvious,  that  in  the  course  of 
its  revolution  it  is  at  very  different  distances  from  the  earth. 
When  at  its  greatest  distance — as  when  the  earth  is  at  E,  and 
the  planet  at  C,  fig.  34, — it  is  240  millions  of  miles  from  the 
earth.  This  will  appear  from  an  inspection  of  the  figure.  The 
distance,  E S,  from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  is  95  millions  of  miles ; 
the  distance,  S C,  of  Mars  from  the  sun,  is  145  millions.  These 
distances  added  together,  amount  to  the  whole  distance  from  E 
to  C,  or  from  the  earth  to  Mars,  when  in  conjunction  with  the 
sun.  When  nearest  the  earth,  as  at  A , it  is  only  fifty  millions 
of  miles  distant  from  us.  For,  as  the  whole  distance  of  the 
planet  from  the  sun,  A S , is  145  millions,  subtract  the  distance 
of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  E S,  = 95  millions,  and  the  remainder 

i 


114 


DISTANCE  AND  VELOCITY  OF  MARS. 


will  be  the  distance  of  the  planet,  E A,  =:  50  millions  of  miles 
from  the  earth.  Small  as  this  distance  may  appear,  compared 
with  that  of  some  of  the  other  planets,  it  would  require  more 
than  285  years  for  a steam-carriage,  moving  without  intermis- 
sion at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour,  to  pass  over  the  space 
which  intervenes  between  the  earth  and  Mars  at  its  nearest 
distance. 

From  what  has  been  now  stated,  it  is  evident  that  this  planet 
will  present  a very  different  aspect,  as  to  size  and  splendour,  in 
different  parts  of  its  orbit.  When  nearest  to  the  earth,  it 
appears  with  a surface  twenty-five  times  larger  than  it  does  at 
its  greatest  distance,  and  it  seems  to  vie  with  Jupiter  in  apparent 
magnitude  and  splendour.  But,  when  verging  towards  its  con- 
junction with  the  sun,  it  is  almost  imperceptible.  And  this  is 
one  proof,  among  others,  of  the  truth  of  the  Copernican  system. 
All  its  motions,  stations,  and  direct  and  retrograde  movements, 
and  the  times  in  which  they  happen,  exactly  accord  with  its 
position  in  the  system,  and  the  motion  of  the  earth,  as  a planet 
between  the  orbits  of  Yenus  and  Mars.  Whereas,  were  the 
earth  supposed  to  be  the  centre  of  this  planet’s  motion,  accord- 
ing to  the  Ptolemaic  hypothesis,  it  would  be  impossible  to  ac- 
count for  any  of  the  phenomena  above  stated. 

The  orbit  of  Mars  is  901,064,000,  or  more  than  900  millions 
of  miles  in  circumference.  Through  this  space  it  moves  in  one 
year  and  322  days,  or  in  16,488  hours.  Consequently,  its  rate 
of  motion  is  54,649  miles  every  hour,  which  is  more  than  a 
hundred  times  the  greatest  velocity  of  a common  ball  when  it 
leaves  the  mouth  of  the  cannon.  The  diurnal  rotation  of  this 
planet,  or  its  revolution  round  its  axis,  is  accomplished  in 
twenty-four  hours,  thirty-nine  minutes,  twenty-one  seconds, 
which  is  about  two*  thirds  of  an  hour  longer  than  our  day.  This 
period  of  rotation  was  first  ascertained  by  Cassini,  from  the 
motion  of  certain  spots  on  its  surface,  which  I shall  afterwards 
describe.  Its  axis  is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  in  an 
angle  of  thirty  degrees,  eighteen  minutes,  which  is  nearly  seven 
degrees  more  inclined  from  the  perpendicular  than  that  of  the 
earth.  This  motion  is  in  the  same  direction  as  the  rotation  of 
the  earth — namely,  from  west  to  east.  The  inclination  of  the 
orbit  of  Mars  to  that  of  the  earth  is,  one  degree,  fifty-one 
minutes,  six  seconds;  so  that  this  planet  is  never  so  much  as 
two  degrees  either  north  or  south  of  the  ecliptic.  The  orbit  of 
Mars  is  considerably  eccentric.  Its  eccentricity  is  no  less  than 


VIEWS  OF  MARS. 


115 


13,463,000  miles,  or  about  of  its  diameter,  which  is  more 
than  eight  times  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of  the  earth* 
Hence  it  follows,  that  Mars,  when  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  may 
be  nearer  the  earth,  by  a considerable  number  of  millions  of 
miles,  at  one  time  than  at  another,  when  he  happens  to  be  about 
h\s  perihelion,  or  nearest  distance  from  the  sun,  at  such  opposi- 
tion. On  the  27th  of  August,  1719,  this  planet  was  in  such  a 
position,  being  in  opposition  within  degrees  of  its  perihelion, 
and  nearer  to  the  earth  than  it  had  been  for  a long  period  be- 
fore; so  that  its  magnitude  and  brightness  were  so  much  in- 
creased, that,  by  common  spectators,  it  was  taken  for  a new 
star. 

Appearance  of  the  surface  of  Mars  when  viewed  through 
Telescopes. — It  was  not  before  the  telescope  was  brought  to  a 
certain  degree  of  perfection  that  spots  were  discovered  on  the 
surface  of  Mars.  This  instrument  was  first  directed  to  the 
heavens  by  Galileo,  in  the  year  1610;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
beginning  of  1666  that  any  of  the  spots  which  diversify  this 
planet  were  discovered.  On  the  6th  of  February,  that  year,  in 
the  morning,  Cassini,  with  a telescope  of  sixteen  feet  long,  saw 
two  dark  spots  on  the  face  of  Mars,  as  represented  in  fig.  35; 
and  on  February  24th,  in  the  evening,  he  saw,  on  the  other  face 
of  the  planet,  two  other  spots,  somewhat  like  those  of  the  first, 
but  larger,  as  represented  in  fig.  36.  These  figures  are  copied 


Fig.  35.  . Fig.  36. 


from  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Afterwards,  continuing  his  observations,  he  found  the  spots  of 
these  two  faces  to  turn  by  little  and  little  from  east  to  west,  and 
to  return  at  last  to  the  same  situation  in  which  he  had  first  seen 


116 


VIEWS  OF  MARS. 


them.  Campani,  and  several  other  astronomers,  observed 
similar  spots  about  the  same  time  at  Rome,  and  Dr.  Hook  in 
England.  Some  of  these  observers  were  led  to  conclude,  from 
the  motion  of  the?e  spots,  that  the  rotation  of  this  planet  was 
accomplished  in  thirteen  hours;  but  Cassini,  who  observed  them 
with  particular  care,  proved  that  the  period  of  rotation  was 
about  twenty-four  hours  and  forty  minutes,  and  showed  that  the 
error  of  the  other  astronomers  arose  from  their  not  distinguish- 
ing the  difference  of  the  spots  which  appeared  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  disk  of  Mars.  The  deductions  of  Cassini  on  this 
point  have  been  fully  confirmed  by  subsequent  observations. 

Maraldi,  a celebrated  French  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
made  particular  observations  on  these  spots  in  the  year  1704. 
He  observed  that  the  spots  were  not  always  well  defined,  and  that 
they  often  changed  their  form,  not  only  in  the  space  of  time  from 
one  opposition  to  another,  but  even  within  the  space  of  a month; 
but  some  of  them  continued  of  the  same  form  long  enough  to 
ascertain  their  periods.  Among  these  was  an  oblong  spot,  not 
unlike  one  of  the  broken  belts  of  Jupiter,  that  did  not  reach 
quite  round  the  body  of  Mars,  but  had,  not  far  from  the  middle 
of  it,  a small  protuberance  towards  the  north,  so  well  defined  as 
to  enable  him  to  settle  the  period  of  its  revolution  at  twenty- 
four  hours,  thirty-nine  minutes, — only  one  minute  less  than 
Cassini  had  determined  it.  This  appearance  of  Mars  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  37.  On  the  27th  of  August,  1719,  the  same 
observer,  with  a telescope  of  thirty-four  feet  in  length,  per- 
ceived, among  several  other  spots,  a long  belt  that  reached  about 
half-way  round  the  planet,  not  parallel  to  its  equator,  to  the  end 
of  which  another  short  belt  was  joined,  so  as  to  form  an  angle 
a little  obtuse,  as  represented  fig.  38. 


Fig.  37.  Fig.  38. 


VIEWS  OF  MARS. 


117 


The  following  figures  represent  the  appearance  of  the  spots 
as  seen  by  Dr.  Hook,  in  1666.  He  saw  Mars  on  March  3, 
1666,  as  represented  fig.  39,  which  appearance  was  taken  down 
at  the  moment  of  observation.  On  the  23rd  of  the  same  month, 
he  perceived  the  spots  as  delineated  in  fig.  40,  which  appear  to 
have  been  either  the  same  spots  in  another  position,  or  some 
other  spots  on  the  other  hemisphere  of  the  planet. 


Fig.  39.  Fig.  40. 


The  following  are  two  views  of  this  planet  by  Sir  William 
Herschel,  who  has  given  a great  variety  of  delineations  of  the 
different  appearances  of  Mars,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  for  1784: — 


Fig.  41.  Fie.  42. 


My  own  views  of  this  planet  have  not  been  numerous,  as  it  is 
only  at  intervals  of  two  years,  when  near  its  opposition,  that 


118 


VIEWS  OF  MARS. 


observations  can  be  made  on  its  surface  with  effect.  I have, 
however,  distinctly  perceived  its  surface  as  delineated  in  figures 
43  and  44.  These  observations  were  made  in  November  and 
December,  1832,  and  in  January,  1837,  and  the  appearances 
were  very  nearly  the  same;  but  the  spots  as  represented  in  the 
two  figures  were  seen  at  different  times,  and  were  evidently 
on  different  hemispheres  of  the  planet,  which  were  presented 
in  succession  by  its  motion  of  rotation.  The  instrument  used 
in  the  observations  was  a 44^-inch  achromatic  telescope,  with 
magnifying  powers  of  150  and  180  times. 


Fig.  43.  Fig.  44. 


Besides  the  dark  spots  above  delineated,  there  is  a small  por- 
tion of  the  globe  of  Mars,  round  its  south  pole,  which  has,  at 
least  occasionally,  a much  brighter  appearance  than  the  other 
parts.  Maraldi,  who  made  observations  on  Mars  about  the  year 
1719,  says,  that  this  bright  spot  had  been  noticed  for  sixty  years 
before  that  period,  and  that  it  is  more  permanent  than  any  of 
the  other  spots  of  Mars;  that  this  segment  or  zone  is  not  all  of 
equal  brightness,  more  than  one-half  of  it  being  brighter  than 
the  rest;  that  the  part  which  is  least  bright  is  subject  to  great 
changes,  and  has  sometimes  disappeared;  and  that  there  has 
sometimes  been  seen  a luminous  zone  round  the  north  pole  of 
Mars,  which  has  appeared  of  different  brightness  in  different 
years.  The  bright  spot  at  the  polar  point  is  represented  at  a , 
figures  41,  42.  These  white  spots  have  been  conjectured  to  be 
snow,  as  they  disappear  when  they  have  been  long  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  are  greatest  when  just  emerging  from  the  long  night 


ATMOSPHERE  OF  MARS. 


119 


of  the  polar  winter  in  that  planet.  This  is  the  opinion  of  Sir 
W.  Herschel,  in  his  paper  on  this  subject  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.  “ In  the  year  1781,”  says  this  astronomer,  “ the 
south  polar  spot  was  extremely  large,  which  we  might  well  ex- 
pect, as  that  pole  had  but  lately  been  involved  in  a whole  twelve- 
month’s darkness  and  absence  of  the  sun;  but  in  1783,  I found 
it  considerably  smaller  than  before,  and  it  decreased  continually 
from  the  20th  of  May  till  about  the  middle  of  September,  when 
it  seemed  to  be  at  a stand.  During  this  last  period  the  south 
pole  had  already  been  about  eight  months  enjoying  the  benefit 
of  summer,  and  still  continued  to  receive  the  sunbeams,  though, 
towards  the  latter  end,  in  such  an  oblique  direction  as  to  be  but 
little  benefited  by  them.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  year  1781, 
the  north  polar  spot,  which  had  then  been  its  twelvemonth  in 
the  sunshine,  and  was  but  lately  returning  into  darkness,  ap- 
peared small,  though  undoubtedly  increasing  in  size.”  Hence 
he  concludes,  “ that  the  bright  polar  spots  are  owing  to  the 
vivid  reflection  of  light  from  frozen  regions,  and  that  the  re- 
duction of  those  spots  is  to  be  ascribed  to  their  being  exposed  to 
the  sun.” 

Atmosphere  of  Mars . — From  the  gradual  diminution  of  the 
light  of  the  fixed  stars,  when  they  approach  near  the  disk  of 
Mars,  it  has  been  inferred  that  this  planet  is  surrounded  with 
an  atmosphere  of  great  extent.  Although  the  extent  of  this 
atmosphere  has  been  much  overrated,  yet  it  is  generally  ad- 
mitted by  astronomers  that  an  atmosphere  of  considerable  density 
and  elevation  exists.  Both  Cassini  and  Roemer  observed  a star, 
at  six  minutes  from  the  disk  of  Mars,  become  so  faint  before 
it  was  covered  by  the  planet,  that  it  could  not  be  seen  even 
with  a three  feet  telescope;  which,  in  all  probability,  was  caused 
by  the  light  of  the  star  being  obscured  by  passing  through  the 
dense  part  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  planet.  It  is  doubtless  owing 
to  this  circumstance  that  Mars  presents  so  ruddy  an  appearance 
— more  so  than  any  other  planet  or  star  in  the  nocturnal  sky. 
When  a beam  of  light  passes  through  a dense  medium,  its  colour 
inclines  to  red,  the  other  rays  being  partly  reflected  or  absorbed. 
Thus  the  morning  and  evening  clouds  are  generally  tinged  with 
red,  and  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  when  near  the  horizon,  either 
rising  or  setting,  uniformly  assume  a ruddy  aspect,  because  their 
light  then  passes  through  the  lower  and  denser  part  of  our 
atmosphere.  When  the  light  of  the  sun  passes  through  the  at- 
mosphere of  Mars,  the  most  refrangible  colours,  such  as  the 


120 


PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  MARS. 


violet,  will  be  partly  absorbed ; and  before  the  reflected  rays 
reach  the  earth,  they  must  again  pass  through  the  atmosphere 
of  the  planet,  and  be  deprived  of  another  portion  of  the  most 
refrangible  rays;  and  consequently  the  red  rays  will  predomi- 
nate, and  the  planet  assume  a dull  red  colour.  This  I con- 
ceive to  be  the  chief  reason  why  I could  never  perceive  Mars 
in  the  day-time,  even  when  in  the  most  favourable  position,  so 
distinctly  as  Jupiter,  although  the  quantity  of  solar  light  which 
falls  on  this  planet  is  more  than  eleven  times  greater  than  what 
falls  on  Jupiter;  which  seems  to  indicate  that  Jupiter  is  sur- 
rounded with  a less  dense  and  more  transparent  atmosphere. 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  though  he  questions  the  accuracy  of  some  of 
the  observations  of  the  dimness  caused  by  the  appulses  of  the 
fixed  stars  to  this  planet,  yet  admits  that  it  has  a considerable 
atmosphere.  “ For,”  says  he,  “ besides  the  permanent  spots  on 
its  surface,  I have  often  noticed  occasional  changes  of  partial 
bright  belts,  and  also  once  a darkish  one  in  a pretty  high  lati- 
tude : and  these  alterations  we  can  hardly  ascribe  to  any  other 
cause  than  the  variable  disposition  of  clouds  and  vapours  float- 
ing in  the  atmosphere  of  the  planet.” 

Conclusions  respecting  the  Physical  Constitution  of  Mars . — 
From  the  preceding  observations,  and  the  views  we  have  exhi- 
bited of  this  planet,  I presume  we  are  warranted  to  deduce,  with 
a high  degree  of  probability,  the  following  conclusions : — 1.  That 
land  and  water,  analogous  to  those  on  our  globe,  exist  in  the 
planet  Mars.  The  dark  spots  are  obviously  the  water,  or  seas, 
upon  its  surface,  which  reflect  a much  less  proportion  of  the 
solar  light  than  the  land.  “ The  seas,”  says  Sir  John  Herschel, 
“ by  a general  law  in  optics,  appear  greenish , and  form  a con- 
trast to  the  land.  I have  noticed  this  phenomenon  on  many 
occasions,  but  never  more  distinct  than  on  the  occasion  when 
the  drawing  was  made;”  from  which  the  figure  of  Mars,  in  his 
“ Astronomy,”  is  engraved.  It  is  not  improbable,  from  the 
size  of  the  dark  spots  compared  with  the  whole  disk  of  Mars, 
that  about  one-third,  or  one-fourth  of  the  surface  of  that  planet 
is  covered  with  water.  If  this  estimate  be  nearly  correct,  it 
will  follow,  that  the  quantity  of  land  and  water  on  Mars  is 
nearly  in  a reverse  proportion  to  that  which  obtains  on  our 
globe,  where  the  quantity  of  water  is  nearly  four  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  land.  The  dark  spots  in  some  of  the  views 
given  above  seem  to  convey  the  idea  of  several  large  gulfs,  or 
bays,  running  up  into  the  land.  The  various  appearances  of 


SEASONS  IN  MARS. 


121 


these  spots  which  we  have  delineated  are  partly  owing  to  the 
different  relations  and  positions  in  which  they  appear  during 
different  periods  of  the  planet’s  rotation,  as  I have  already  shown 
would  happen  in  the  appearance  of  the  earth,  were  it  viewed 
from  a distance  in  the  heavens,  (see  page  97.)  2.  It  is  pro- 

bable, too,  that  there  are  strata  of  clouds  of  considerable  extent 
occasionally  floating  in  the  atmosphere  of  Mars;  for  some  of  the 
observers  referred  to  above  have  remarked  that  some  of  the 
spots  “ changed  their  form  in  the  course  of  a month;”  and  Sir 
W.  Herschel,  as  above  stated,  declares  that  he  has  noticed  “ oc- 
casional changes  of  partial  bright  belts,  and  also  once  of  a dark- 
ish one.”  These,  in  all  probability,  were  clouds  of  greater  or 
less  density,  which,  for  the  most  part,  would  appear  brighter 
than  the  seas  by  the  reflection  of  the  solar  rays  from  their  upper 
surfaces;  for  although  the  under  surface  of  dense  clouds  appears 
dark  to  us  who  view  them  from  below,  yet  were  we  to  view 
their  upper  surface  from  a distance  when  the  sun  shines  upon 
them,  they  would  undoubtedly  present  a bright  appearance  by 
the  reflection  of  the  solar  rays.  It  is,  doubtless,  owing  to  the 
occasional  interposition  of  such  clouds  in  the  atmosphere  of  Mars, 
that  the  'permanent  spots  sometimes  appear  to  vary  their  form 
and  aspect.  3.  A variety  of  seasons,  somewhat  similar  to  ours, 
must  be  experienced  in  this  planet.  The  diversity  of  seasons  on 
our  globe  arises  chiefly  from  the  inclination  of  its  axis  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic.  Now,  in  reference  to  Mars,  the  axis  of 
rotation  is  inclined  to  its  orbit  at  even  a greater  angle  than  that 
of  the  earth;  and  therefore  the.  contrast  between  its  opposite 
seasons  is  probably  more  marked  and  striking  than  on  the  earth. 
The  seasons  will  also  continue  for  a much  longer  period  than  with 
us,  as  the  year  in  Mars  is  nearly  double  the  length  of  ours,  so  that 
summer  and  winter  will  be  prolonged  for  a period  of  eight  or 
nine  months  respectively.  If  the  opinion  of  Sir  W.  Herschel  be 
correct,  that  the  white  spots  at  the  poles  of  Mars  are  caused  by 
the  reflection  of  the  sun’s  rays  from  masses  of  ice  and  snow,  it 
will  afford  an  additional  proof  of  the  existence  of  a diversity  of 
seasons  on  this  planet,  and  that  its  inhabitants  are  subjected  to 
a winter  of  great  severity  and  of  long  duration.  4.  This  planet 
bears  a more  striking  resemblance  to  the  earth  than  any  other 
planet  in  the  solar  system.  Its  distance  from  the  sun,  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  other  superior  planets,  is  but  a little  more 
than  that  of  the  earth.  The  distinction  of  land  and  water  on  its 
surface  is  more  strikingly  marked  than  on  any  of  the  other 


122 


MAGNITUDE  OF  MARS. 


planets.  It  is  encompassed  with  an  atmosphere  of  considerable 
extent.  It  is  probable  that  large  masses  of  clouds  are  occasion- 
ally formed  in  that  atmosphere,  such  as  sometimes  hover  over 
the  whole  of  Britain,  and  even  of  Europe,  for  several  weeks  at 
a time.  The  length  of  the  day  is  nearly  the  same  as  ours,  and  it 
has  evidently  a succession  of  different  seasons.  Were  we  war- 
ranted from  such  circumstances  to  form  an  opinion  respecting 
the  physical  and  moral  state  of  the  beings  that  inhabit  it,  we 
might  be  apt  to  conclude  that  they  are  in  a condition  not  alto- 
gether very  different  from  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe. 

Magnitude  and  Extent  of  Surface  of  Mars . — This  planet  is 
now  estimated  to  be  about  4200  miles  in  diameter,  which  is 
only  a little  more  than  half  the  diameter  of  the  earth.  It  con- 
tains 38,792,000,000,  or  more  than  38  thousand  millions  of 
solid  miles;  and  the  number  of  square  miles  on  its  surface  is 
55,417,824,  or  more  than  55  millions,  which  is  about  six 
millions  of  square  miles  more  than  on  all  the  habitable  parts  of 
our  globe.  At  the  rate  of  population  formerly  stated, — 280  to 
a square  mile, — it  would  contain  a population  of  more  than 
fifteen  thousand  five  hundred  millions,  which  is  nineteen  times 
the  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth;  but,  as  it  is  pro- 
bable that  one-third  of  the  surface  of  Mars  is  covered  with  water, 
should  we  subtract  one-third  from  these  sums  there  would  still 
remain  accommodation  for  twelve  times  the  number  of  the 
population  of  our  globe. 

No  moon,  or  secondary  planet,  has  yet  been  discovered  about 
Mars;  yet  this  is  no  proof  that  it  is  destitute  of  such  an  attendant; 
for  as  all  the  secondary  planets  are  much  less  than  their  pri- 
maries, and  as  Mars  ranks  among  the  smallest  planets  of  the 
system,  its  satellite,  if  any  exist,  must  be  extremely  small.  The 
second  satellite  of  J upiter  is  only  the  Jg-  part  of  the  diameter  of 
that  planet;  and  a satellite  bearing  the  same  proportion  to  Mars 
would  be  only  ninety-seven  miles  in  diameter.  But  suppose  it 
were  double  this  size,  it  could  scarcely  be  distinguishable  by 
our  telescopes,  especially  when  we  consider  that  such  a satellite 
would  never  appear  to  recede  to  any  considerable  distance  from 
the  margin  of  Mars.  The  distance  of  the  first  satellite  of 
Jupiter  is  only  three  diameters  of  that  planet  from  its  centre; 
and  the  distance  of  the  first  satellite  of  Saturn  is  but  one 
diameter  and  two-thirds  from  its  centre.  Now,  if  a satellite  of 
the  size  we  have  supposed  were  to  revolve  round  Mars  at  the 
distance  of  only  two  or  three  of  its  diameters,  its  nearness  to 


PROPORTION  OF  LIGHT  ON  MARS. 


123 


the  body  of  Mars  would  generally  prevent  its  being  perceived, 
unless  with  telescopes  of  very  great  power,  and  under  certain 
favourable  circumstances;  and  it  could  never  be  expected  to  be 
seen  but  about  the  time  of  that  planet’s  opposition  to  the  sun, 
which  happens  only  at  an  interval  of  more  than  two  years.  If 
such  a satellite  exist,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  will  revolve 
at  the  nearest  possible  distance  from  the  planet,  in  order  to 
afford  it  the  greatest  quantity  of  light;  in  which  case  it  would 
never  be  seen  beyond  two  minutes  of  a degree  from  the  margin 
of  the  planet,  and  that  only  in  certain  favourable  positions.  If 
the  plane  of  its  orbit  lay  nearly  in  a line  with  our  axis  of  vision, 
it  would  frequently  be  hid,  either  by  the  interposition  of  the 
body  of  Mars,  or  by  transiting  its  disk.  It  is  therefore  possible, 
and  not  at  all  improbable,  that  Mars  may  have  a satellite, 
although  it  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  It  is  no  argument  for 
the  non-existence  of  such  a body,  that  we  have  not  yet  seen  it; 
but  it  ought  to  serve  as  an  argument  to  stimulate  us  to  apply 
our  most  powerful  instruments  to  the  regions  around  this  planet 
with  more  frequency  and  attention  than  we  have  hitherto  done, 
and  it  is  possible  our  diligence  may  be  rewarded  with  the  dis- 
covery. The  long  duration  of  winter  in  the  polar  regions  of 
Mars  seems  to  require  a moon  to  cheer  them  during  the  long 
absence  of  the  sun;  and  if  there  be  none,  the  inhabitants  of 
those  regions  must  be  in  a far  more  dreary  condition  than  the 
Laplanders  and  Greenlanders  on  our  globe. 

Proportion  of  Light  on  the  Surface  of  Mars. — As  the  quantity 
of  solar  light  on  any  of  the  planets  is  in  an  inverse  proportion  to 
their  distance  from  the  sun,  the  quantity  of  light  which  falls 
upon  Mars  will  be  much  less  than  that  which  we  enjoy.  It  is 
nearly  in  the  proportion  of  43  to  100,  which  is  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  light  which  falls  upon  the  earth.  This  is  partly  the 
reason  why  Mars  appears  so  much  less  brilliant  than  Venus,  but 
it  is  not  the  only  reason ; for  Jupiter  appears  much  more 
brilliant  than  Mars,  although  he  is  placed  at  a much  greater 
distance  from  the  sun.  The  refraction,  reflection,  and  absorp- 
tion of  the  rays  of  light  in  passing  through  the  dense  atmo- 
sphere to  which  we  have  alluded  is,  doubtless,  one  principal 
reason  why  Mars  appears  more  sombre  in  its  aspect  than  Jupiter 
or  Venus.  The  following  figure  represents  the  apparent  size  of 
the  sun  as  seen  from  Mars  and  the  earth.  The  circle  m repre- 
sents the  size  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  Mars,  and  e,  as  seen  from 
the  earth.  The  degree  of  heat  on  different  parts  of  this  planet 


124 


NEW  PLANETS. 


Fig.  45. 


will  depend  upon  various  circumstances — the  inclination  of  its 
axis,  the  position  of  places  in  respect  to  its  equator  and  poles, 
the  nature  of  its  soil,  the  materials  which  compose  its  surface, 
the  quantity  of  water  in  different  regions,  the  constitution  of  its 
atmosphere,  and  other  circumstances  with  which  we  are  un- 
acquainted. 

The  figure  of  Mars  is  an  oblate  spheroid , like  that  of  the 
earth,  but  much  flatter  at  the  poles.  Its  equatorial  diameter  is 
to  its  polar  as  1355  to  1272,  or  nearly  as  16  to  15;  con- 
sequently, if  its  equatorial  diameter  be  4,200  miles,  its  polar 
diameter  will  be  only  3,937,  which  is  263  miles  shorter  than  the 
equatorial.  The  mass  of  this  planet  compared  with  that  of  the 
sun  is  as  1 to  1,846,082.  Its  density  compared  with  water  is  as 
3f  to  1,  wThich  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the  earth,  but 
greater  than  the  general  density  of  the  rocks  and  other  materials 
wThich  compose  the  surface  of  our  globe.  A body  which  weighs 
one  pound  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  would  weigh  only  five 
ounces  six  drams  on  the  surface  of  Mars. 


V.  ON  THE  LATELY  DISCOVERED  PLANETS,  VESTA,  JUNO, 
CERES,  AND  PALLAS. 

The  immense  interval  which  lies  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter  led  some  astronomers  to  surmise  that  a planet  of 
considerable  magnitude  might  possibly  exist  somewhere  within 
this  limit.  This  conjecture  was  grounded  on  the  intervals  which 
exist  between  the  rest  of  the  planetary  orbits.  Between  the 
orbits  of  Mercury  and  Yenus  there  is  an  interval  of  31  millions 


NEW  PLANETS. 


J 25 


of  miles;  between  those  of  Venus  and  the  earth,  27  millions; 
between  those  of  the  earth  and  Mars,  50  millions;  but  between 
the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter  there  intervenes  the  immense 
space  of  349  millions  of  miles.  Here  the  order  of  the  solar 
system  was  supposed  to  be  interrupted,  which  would  form  an 
exception  to  the  general  law  of  the  proportion  of  the  planetary 
distances.  No  planetary  body,  however,  was  detected  within 
this  interval  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century;  and  in- 
stead of  one  large  body,  as  was  surmised,  four  very  small  ones 
have  been  discayered.  These  bodies  are  situated  at  a distance 
from  Mars  nearly  corresponding  to  the  order  and  proportion  to 
which  we  have  now  alluded;  and  this  circumstance  leads  to  a belief 
“ that  it  is  something  beyond  a mere  accidental  coincidence,  and 
belongs  to  the  essential  structure  of  the  system.”  As  these  bodies 
are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  can  only  be  seen  in  certain 
favourable  positions,  and  as  only  a short  period  has  elapsed 
since  their  discovery,  we  are  not  yet  much  acquainted  with 
many  of  the  phenomena  and  physical  peculiarities. 

Of  these  four  bodies,  the  first  discovered  was  that  which  is 
now  named  Ceres , and  sometimes  Piazzi , from  the  name  of  its 
discoverer.  It  was  discovered  at  Palermo,  in  the  island  of  Sicily, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  or  the  1st  day  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, by  Piazzi,  a celebrated  astronomer  belonging  to  that  city, 
who  has  since  distinguished  himself  by  his  numerous  observa- 
tions on  the  fixed  stars.  This  new  celestial  body  was  then 
situated  in  the  constellation  Taurus,  and,  consequently,  at  no 
very  great  distance  from  its  opposition  to  the  sun.  It  was  ob- 
served by  Piazzi  till  the  1 2th  of  February  following,  when  a 
dangerous  illness  compelled  him  to  discontinue  his  observations; 
but  it  was  again  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bremen,  after  a 
series  of  unwearied  observations,  and  laborious  calculations, 
founded  on  a few  insulated  facts  which  had  been  stated  by 
Piazzi.  Dr.  Brewster  states,  in  the  “ Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,” 
vol.  ii.  p.  638,  and  likewise  in  his  second  edition  of  “ Ferguson’s 
Astronomy,”  vol.  ii.  p.  38,  “ that  the  re-discovery  of  this  planet 
by  Olbers  did  not  take  place  till  the  1st  of  January,  1807;” 
which  must  be  a mistake;  for  in  La  Decade  Philosophiques,  for 
July,  1803,  it  is  stated  that  Dr.  Olbers,  some  time  before,  received 
La  Lande’s  prize  for  having  discovered  the  planet  Pallas;  and 
at  the  same  time  his  merit  is  referred  to  in  having  re-discovered 
Ceres,  and  having  been  among  the  first  that  announced  it  to  the 
world.  Besides,  Sir  W.  Herschel  has  observations  on  this 


126 


HISTORY  OF  THEIR  DISCOVERY. 


planet  in  the  “ Philosophical  Transactions,”  of  date  February 
7th,  1802,  which,  of  course,  was  posterior  to  Dr.  Olbers’  re- 
discovery. 

The  Planet  Pallas , or,  as  it  is  sometimes  named,  Olbers , was 
discovered  on  the  28th  of  March,  1802,  only  fifteen  months 
after  the  discovery  of  Ceres, — by  Dr.  Olbers,  a physician  at 
Bremen,  in  Lower  Saxony,  distinguished  for  his  numerous 
celestial  observations,  and  for  his  easy  and  commodious  method 
of  calculating  the  orbits  of  comets.  The  planet  Juno  was  dis- 
covered on  the  evening  of  September  1st,  1804, — within  two 
years  and  a half  of  the  discovery  of  Pallas — by  M.  Harding,  at 
the  observatory  of  Lilienthal,  near  Bremen,  while  endeavouring 
to  form  an  atlas  of  all  the  stars  near  the  orbits  of  Ceres  and 
Pallas,  with  the  view  of  making  further  discoveries.  While 
thus  engaged,  he  perceived  a small  star  of  about  the  eighth 
magnitude,  which  was  not  marked  in  the  Celestial  Atlas  of  La 
Lande,  which  he  put  down  in  his  chart.  Two  days  afterwards 
he  found  that  the  star  had  disappeared  from  the  position  in 
which  he  had  marked  it;  but  a little  to  the  south-west  of  that 
position  he  perceived  another  star  resembling  it  in  size  and 
colour;  and  having  observed  it  again  on  the  5th  of  September, 
and  finding  that  it  had  moved  a little  in  the  same  direction  as 
before,  he  concluded  that  it  was  a moving  body  connected  with 
the  solar  system. 

The  planet  Vesta  was  discovered  on  the  29th  of  March,  1807, 
— little  more  than  two  years  and  a half  after  the  discovery  of 
Juno, — so  that  four  primary  planets  belonging  to  our  system, 
and  which  had  been  hid  for  thousands  of  years  from  the  inhabi- 
tants of  our  globe,  were  discovered  within  the  space  of  little 
more  than  six  years.  Vesta  must  then  have  been  near  its  oppo- 
sition. The  discovery  of  Vesta  was  made  by  Dr.  Olbers,  who 
had  previously  discovered  Pallas,  and  re-discovered  Ceres.  He 
had  formed  an  idea  that  the  three  small  bodies  lately  discovered 
might  possibly  be  the  fragments  of  a larger  planet,  which  had 
been  burst  asunder  by  some  unknown  and  powerful  irruptive 
force  proceeding  from  its  interior  parts,  and  that  more  fragments 
might  still  be  detected.  Whether  this  opinion  be  tenable  or  not, 
it  seems  to  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  Vesta;  for  the  doctor 
concluded,  if  his  opinion  were  just,  that  although  the  orbits  of 
all  these  fragments  might  be  differently  inclined  to  the  ecliptic, 
yet,  as  they  must  all  have  diverged  from  the  same  pointy  “ they 
ought  to  have  two  common  points  of  reunion,  or  two  nodes  in 


NOTICE  OF  DR.  OLBERS. 


127 


opposite  regions  of  the  heavens , through  which  all  the  planetary 
fragments  must  sooner  or  later  pass.”  One  of  these  nodes,  or 
points  of  intersection  of  the  orbits,  he  found  to  be  in  the  sign 
Virgo , and  the  other  in  the  constellation  of  the  Whale ; and  it 
was  actually  in  the  regions  of  the  Whale  that  the  planet  Juno 
was  discovered  by  M.  Harding.  With  the  view,  therefore,  of 
detecting  other  fragments,  if  any  should  exist,  Dr.  Olbers 
examined,  three  times  every  year,  all  the  small  stars  in  the 
opposite  constellations  of  Virgo  and  the  Whale,  and  in  the  con- 
stellation Virgo  the  planet  Vesta  was  first  seen.*  This  was, 
doubtless,  a remarkable  coincidence  of  theory  with  observation, 
and  affords  a presumption  that  the  conjecture  of  this  eminent 
astronomer  may  possibly  have  a foundation  in  fact. 

The  following  is  a summary  of  what  has  been  ascertained 

* William  Olbers,  M.D.,  tlie  discoverer  of  Vesta  and  Pallas,  was  born  on 
the  11th  of  October,  1758,  at  Abergen,  a village  in  the  Duchy  of  Bremen, 
where  his  father  was  a clergyman.  His  father,  besides  being  a man  of  great 
general  learning,  was  a good  mathematician,  and  a lover  of  astronomy.  Young 
Olbers,  when  in  his  fourteenth  year,  felt  a great  taste  for  that  science.  During 
an  evening  walk  in  the  month  of  August,  having  observed  the  Pleiades,  or 
seven  stars,  he  became  very  desirous  of  knowing  to  what  constellation  they 
belonged.  He  therefore  purchased  some  charts  and  books,  and  began  to  study 
this  science  with  the  greatest  diligence : he  read  with  the  utmost  avidity  every 
astronomical  work  he  was  able  to  procure,  and  in  a few  months  made  himself 
acquainted  with  all  the  constellations.  Finding  that  a knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics was  necessary  to  the  study  of  astronomy,  he  devoted  all  his  leisure  time 
to  this  subject.  He  was,  at  the  same  time,  engaged  in  the  study  of  medicine 
as  a profession.  In  the  year  1779,  when  scarcely  twenty-one  years  of  age,  he 
observed  at  Gottingen,  and  calculated  the  first  comet.  An  account  of  this 
labour  was  published  in  the  “ Berlin  Astronomical  Calendar”  for  1782,  where 
it  is  mentioned,  that  Olbers  made  his  construction  one  night  while  attending  a 
patient ; and  yet,  it  was  afterwards  found,  that  Olbers’  determination  of  this 
orbit  corresponded  with  the  most  accurate  elements  of  the  comet  which  were 
calculated.  Since  that  period,  the  astronomy  of  comets  has  been  his  favourite 
study,  and  it  is  admitted  that  none  of  the  methods  formerly  tried  for  calculating 
the  orbit  of  a comet  is  so  simple,  and,  at  the  same  time,  so  elegant,  as  that  of 
Dr.  Olbers.  When  at  Vienna,  amidst  all  his  applications  to  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, he  was  the  first  who  observed  the  planet  Uranus  (after  its  discovery  by 
Herschel')  on  the  17th  of  August,  1781.  On  the  19th  he  perceived  its  motion, 
and  continued  his  observations  till  the  end  of  September,  at  which  period  it  was 
Considered  as  a comet.  Returning  from  the  scene  of  his  studies,  he  settled 
in  Bremen  as  a physician,  where  he  soon  acquired  the  confidence  of  his  fellow- 
citizens,  both  on  account  of  his  successful  practice  and  the  integrity  and  affa- 
bility of  his  character.  Dr.  Olbers  died  at  Bremen,  in  March,  1840,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty-one,  deeply  regretted  by  his  friends  and  the  scientific 
world.  He  was  a member  of  most  of  the  European  learned  societies,  and  the 
author  of  many  important  contributions  to  the  progress  of  modern  astronomy. 


128 


THE  PLANET  VESTA. 


respecting  the  distances,  magnitudes,  and  motions  of  these 
bodies: — 

The  Planet  Vesta. — The  mean  distance  of  this  planet  from 
the  sun  is  reckoned  to  he  about  225  millions  of  miles;  its  annual 
revolution  is  completed  in  about  three  years  7-^  months,  or  in 
1325  days;  the  circumference  of  its  orbit  is  1414  millions  of 
miles,  and,  of  course,  it  moves  with  a velocity,  on  an  average,  of 
more  than  44,000  miles  an  hour.  The  inclination  of  its  orbit 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  seven  degrees,  eight  minutes;  and 
its  eccentricity,  21  millions  of  miles.  The  diameter  of  this 
planet  has  been  estimated  by  some  astronomers  at  only  about 
270  miles;  and  if  this  estimate  be  correct,  it  will  contain  only 
229,000  square  miles,  or  a surface  somewhat  less  than  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Ireland;  and,  according  to  the  rate  of 
population  formerly  stated,  would  contain  64  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants, or  about  five  times  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  or  nearly  the  twelfth  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  earth.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  this  estimate  is  too 
small,  and  that  the  apparent  diameter  of  this  planet  has  not  yet 
been  accurately  taken;  for  the  light  of  this  body  is  considered  as 
equal  to  that  of  a star  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  magnitude,  and  it 
may  sometimes  be  distinguished  in  a clear  evening  by  the  naked 
eye.  Its  light  is  more  intense  and  white  than  that  of  either 
Ceres,  Juno,  or  Pallas;  and  it  is  not  surrounded  with  any 
nebulosity,  as  some  of  these  planets  are.  It  is  not  likely  that  a 
body  of  this  size  could  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  130  millions  of 
miles, — which  is  its  nearest  approach  to  the  earth,— and  that, 
too,  by  the  naked  eye,  (as  Schroeter  affirms  he  did  several  times,) 
unless  the  substances  on  its  surface  were  of  such  a nature  as  to 
reflect  the  solar  rays  with  a far  greater  degree  of  brilliancy  than 
any  of  the  other  planets.  The  diameter  of  the  third  satellite  of 
Jupiter  is  reckoned  at  3377  miles,  and  its  surface,  of  course, 
contains  35,827,211  square  miles,  which  is  156  times  greater 
than  the  surface  of  Vesta,  according  to  the  above  estimation. 
Yet  this  satellite  can  never  (or,  at  least,  but  rarely)  be  seen  by 
the  naked  eye.  Vesta  is,  indeed,  only  about  one-third  the  dis- 
tance from  us  of  the  satellite  of  J upiter,  but,  making  allowance 
for  this  circumstance,  it  should  be  at  least  twenty  times  larger 
in  surface  than  is  estimated  above,  in  order  to  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  or  with  the  same  distinctness  as  the  third  satellite  of 
Jupiter.  In  other  words,  it  should  have  a diameter  of  at  least 
1200  miles.  If  this  is  not  the  case,  there  must  be  something 


THE  PLANET  JUNO. 


129 


very  peculiar  and  extraordinary  in  the  reflective  power  of  the 
materials  which  compose  its  surface,  to  produce  such  an  inten- 
sity of  light  from  so  small  a body  at  so  great  a distance  as  1 30 
millions  of  miles.  I am  therefore  of  opinion  that  the  size  of  this 
planet  has  not  yet  been  accurately  ascertained,  and  that  future 
and  more  accurate  observations  are  still  requisite  to  determine 
its  apparent  diameter  and  real  magnitude. 

The  Planet  Juno . — The  next  planet  in  the  order  of  the  sys- 
tem is  Juno.  Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  estimated  at  254 
millions  of  miles.  The  circumference  of  its  orbit  is  1596 
millions  of  miles.  Through  this  circuit  it  moves  in  four  years 
and  128  days,  at  the  rate  of  41,850  miles  every  hour.  Its 
diameter,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Schroeter,  is  1425  Eng- 
lish miles.  Its  surface  will  therefore  contain  6,380,000  square 
miles,  and  a population  of  one  thousand,  seven  hundred,  and 
eighty- six  millions,  which  is  more  than  double  the  number  of 
the  earth’s  inhabitants.  The  orbit  of  Juno  is  inclined  to  the 
ecliptic  in  an  angle  of  thirteen  degrees,  three  minutes.  Its 
eccentricity  is  63,588,000  miles,  so  that  its  greatest  distance 
from  the  sun  is  3 16,968,000  miles,  while  its  least  distance  is 
only  189,792,000.  Its  apparent  diameter  as  seen  from  the 
earth  is  little  more  than  three  seconds.  This  planet  is  of  a 
reddish  colour,  and  is  free  from  any  nebulosity;  yet  the  obser- 
vations of  Schroeter  render  it  probable  that  it  has  an  atmosphere 
more  dense  than  that  of  any  of  the  old  planets  of  the  system. 
A remarkable  variation  in  the  brilliancy  of  this  planet  has  been 
observed  by  this  astronomer,  which  he  attributes  to  changes 
that  are  going  on  in  its  atmosphere,  and  thinks  it  not  improbable 
that  these  changes  may  arise  from  a diurnal  rotation  performed 
in  twenty-seven  hours. 

The  Planet  Ceres . — This  planet  is  about  263  millions  of  miles 
from  the  sun,  and  completes  its  annual  revolution  in  four  years, 
seven  months,  and  ten  days.  The  circumference  of  its  orbit  is 
1653  millions  of  miles,  and  it  moves  at  the  rate  of  about  forty- 
one  thousand  miles  an  hour.  The  eccentricity  of  its  orbit  is 

20.598.000  miles.  Its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun  is 

283.500.000  miles,  and  its  least  distance,  242,300,000.  Its 
apparent  mean  diameter,  including  its  atmosphere,  according  to 
Schroeter,  is  somewhat  more  than  six  seconds,  at  its  mean  dis- 
tance from  the  earth.  Its  real  diameter,  according  to  the  esti- 
mate of  the  same  astronomer,  is  1624  English  miles;  but,  in- 
cluding its  atmosphere,  is  2974  miles.  Its  surface,  therefore, 

K 


130 


THE  PLANET  CERES. 


contains  8,285,580  square  miles,  or  about  the  one-sixth  part  of 
the  habitable  portions  of  our  globe;  and  would  afford  accommo- 
dation for  2,319,962,400,  or  more  than  2300  millions  of  inhabi- 
tants, according  to  the  rate  of  population  in  England,  which  is 
nearly  triple  the  present  population  of  the  earth.  This  planet  is 
of  a slight  ruddy  colour,  and  appears  about  the  size  of  a star  of 
the  eighth  magnitude,  and  is  consequently  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye.  It  seems  to  be  surrounded  with  a dense  atmosphere,  and 
exhibits  a disk,  or  sensible  breadth  of  surface,  when  viewed  with 
a magnifying  power  of  200  times.  Schroeter  has  determined, 
from  a great  number  of  observations,  that  its  atmosphere  is 
about  675  English  miles  in  height,  and  that  it  is  subject  to 
numerous  changes.  Like  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth,  it  is  very 
dense  near  the  planet,  and  becomes  rarer  at  a greater  distance, 
which  causes  its  apparent  diameter  to  appear  somewhat  variable. 
When  this  planet  is  approaching  the  earth,  towards  the  point  of 
its  opposition  to  the  sun,  its  diameter  increases  more  rapidly 
than  it  ought  to  do  from  the  diminution  of  its  distance,  which 
Schroeter  supposes  to  arise  from  the  finer  exterior  strata  of  its 
atmosphere  becoming  visible  while  it  approaches  the  earth.  He 
also  perceived  that  the  visible  hemisphere  of  the  planet  was 
sometimes  overshadowed,  and  at  other  times  cleared  up,  so  that 
he  concludes  there  is  little  chance  of  discovering  the  period  of 
its  diurnal  rotation.  The  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  ecliptic 
is  in  an  angle  of  ten  degrees,  thirty-seven  minutes.  The  inten- 
sity of  light  upon  its  surface  is  more  than  seven  times  less  than 
what  we  enjoy. 

Sir  William  Herschel,  in  the  year  1802,  after  the  discovery 
of  Ceres  and  Pallas,  made  a number  of  observations  to  ascertain 
if  any  of  these  bodies  were  accompanied  by  satellites.  Several 
very  small  stars  were  occasionally  perceived  near  Ceres,  with 
high  magnifying  powers,  of  the  positions  and  motions  of  which 
he  has  given  several  delineations;  but  it  did  not  appear  pro- 
bable, in  subsequent  observations,  that  they  accompanied  the 
planet.  In  his  observation  of  April  28th,  with  a power  of  550, 
he  says — “ Ceres  is  surrounded  with  a strong  haziness.  The 
breadth  of  the  coma,  beyond  the  disk,  may  amount  to  the  extent 
of  a diameter  of  the  disk,  which  is  not  very  sharply  defined. 
Were  the  whole  coma  and  star  taken  together,  they  would  be  at 
least  three  times  as  large  as  my  measure  of  the  star.  The 
coma  is  very  dense  near  the  nucleus;  but  looses  itself  pretty 
abruptly  on  the  outside,  though  a gradual  diminution  is  still 


THE  PLANET  PALLAS. 


131 


very  perceptible.”  These  observations  seem  to  corroborate  the 
idea  that  Ceres  is  encompassed  with  an  atmosphere  of  great 
density  and  elevation. 

The  Planet  Pallas . — This  planet  revolves  about  the  sun  at 
the  mean  distance  of  263  millions  of  miles,  and  finishes  its  revo- 
lution in  1681  days,  17  hours,  or  in  4 years  and  7^  months, 
which  is  within  a day  of  the  time  of  the  revolution  of  Ceres. 
Its  distance  is  likewise  nearly  the  same  as  that  planet,  and 
the  circumference  of  its  orbit  will  also  be  nearly  the  same. 
This  planet,  however,  is  distinguished  in  a remarkable  degree, 
both  from  Ceres  and  from  all  the  other  planets,  by  the  very 
great  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  This  in- 
clination is  no  less  than  thirty-four  degrees,  thirty-seven  minutes, 
which  is  nearly  five  times  the  inclination  of  Mercury’s  orbit, 
which  was  formerly  reckoned  to  have  the  greatest  inclination 
of  any  of  the  planetary  orbits.  The  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of 
Pallas  is  likewise  greater  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  planets, 
which  is  no  less  than  64,516,000  miles,  so  that  this  planet  is  129 
millions  of  miles  nearer  the  sun  in  one  part  of  its  orbit  than  it  is 
at  the  opposite  extremity.  Its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun 
is  327,437,000  miles,  and  its  least  distance  only  198,404,000 
miles.  Of  course  its  rate  of  motion  in  its  orbit  must  be  very 
variable,  sometimes  moving  several  thousands  of  miles  an  hour 
swifter  at  one  time  than  at  another,  which  is  likewise  the  case, 
in  a remarkable  degree,  with  the  planet  Juno.  Its  mean  motion 
is  about  41,000  miles  an  hour. 

This  planet  presents  a ruddy  aspect,  but  less  so  than  that  of 
Ceres.  It  is  likewise  surrounded  with  a nebulosity,  somewhat 
like  that  of  Ceres,  but  of  less  extent.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  observations  of  this  planet  by  Schroeter  and  Herschel.  The 
atmosphere  of  Pallas,  according  to  Schroeter,  is  to  that  of  Ceres 
as  101  to  146,  or  nearly  as  two  to  three.  It  undergoes  similar 
changes,  but  the  light  of  the  planet  exhibits  greater  variations. 
On  the  1st  of  April,  the  atmosphere  of  Pallas  suddenly  cleared 
up,  and  the  solid  nucleus  or  disk  of  the  planet  was  alone  visible. 
About  twenty-four  hours  afterwards,  the  planet  appeared  pale 
and  surrounded  with  fog,  and  this  appearance  continued  during 
the  3rd  and  4th  of  April;  but  this  phenomenon  was  not  consi- 
dered as  arising  from  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  planet.  The 
following  are  Herschel’s  observations  : — 44  April  22nd.  In 
viewing  Pallas,  I cannot,  with  the  utmost  attention,  and  under 
favourable  circumstances,  perceive  any  sharp  termination  which 

k 2 


132 


THE  PLANET  PALLAS. 


might  denote  a disk;  it  is  rather  what  I would  call  a nucleus. 
April  22nd.  The  appearance  of  Pallas  is  cometary;  the  disk, 
if  it  has  any,  being  ill-defined.  When  I see  it  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, it  appears  like  a much  compressed,  extremely  small, 
but  ill-defined  planetary  nebula.  May  1st.  With  a twenty-feet 
reflector,  power  477,  I see  Pallas  well,  and  perceive  a very 
small  disk,  with  a coma  of  some  extent  about  it,  the  whole 
diameter  of  which  may  amount  to  six  or  seven  times  that  of  the 
disk  alone.” — Philosophical  Transactions , for  1802. 

The  diameter  of  this  planet  has  not,  perhaps,  been  ascertained 
with  sufficient  precision.  The  difference  in  the  estimates  formed 
by  Sir  W.  Herschel  and  M.  Schroeter  is  very  great.  According 
to  Schroeter,  the  diameter  of  Pallas  is  2099  miles.  If  this 
estimate  be  nearly  correct,  Pallas  will  be  about  the  size  of  our 
moon,  and  will  comprehend  on  its  surface  nearly  fourteen 
millions  of  square  miles,  which  would  accommodate  a population 
of  nearly  four  thousand  million,  or  five  times  the  population  of 
our  world.  The  apparent  mean  diameter  of  this  planet,  com- 
prehending its  atmosphere  at  its  mean  distance  from  the  earth, 
according  to  Schroeter,  is  6^  seconds. 

Such  is  a brief  view  of  the  principal  facts  which  have  been 
ascertained  respecting  the  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and 
Pallas.  All  these  bodies  are  situated  between  the  orbits  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  they  are  all  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
except,  perhaps,  the  planet  Vesta,  when  in  certain  favourable 
positions.  The  real  magnitudes  of  these  planets  are  not  to  be 
considered  as  yet  accurately  determined;  they  may  be  a little 
greater  or  less  that  what  is  stated  above,  though  it  is  not  pro- 
bable they  are  much  larger.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  remark, 
that  on  this  point  there  is  a great  difference  in  the  estimates  of 
Schroeter  and  Herschel,  the  two  principal  observers  who  have 
investigated  the  phenomena  of  these  planets,  owing  to  the  mode 
in  which  they  measured  the  apparent  diameters  of  these  bodies. 
According  to  Sir  W.  Herschel,  there  is  none  of  these  bodies 
that  exceeds  163  miles  in  diameter.  But  it  is  obvious,  from  the 
considerations  I have  stated  in  the  description  of  Vesta,  that 
bodies  of  such  a small  size  could  not  be  visible  at  such  a distance, 
unless  they  were  either  luminous  or  composed  of  matter  fitted  to 
reflect  the  solar  light  with  an  extraordinary  degree  of  brilliancy; 
and  therefore  it  is  far  more  probable  that  the  estimates  of 
Schroeter  are  nearest  the  truth. 

Peculiarities  of  the  New  Planets . — These  bodies  present  to 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  NEW  PLANETS. 


133 


our  view  various  singularities  and  anomalies,  which,  at  first 
sight,  appear  incompatible  with  the  proportion  and  harmony 
which  we  might  suppose  originally  to  have  characterized  the 
arrangements  of  the  solar  system.  In  the  first  place,  their  orbits 
have  a much  greater  degree  of  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  than 
those  of  the  old  planets.  The  orbit  of  Yenus  is  inclined  to  the 
ecliptic  in  an  angle  of  three  degrees,  twenty  minutes;  of  Mars, 
one  degree,  fifty-one  minutes;  of  Jupiter,  one  degree,  eighteen 
minutes;  of  Saturn,  two  degrees  and  a half;  and  of  Uranus, 
only  forty-six  minutes.  But  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  of 
Yesta  is  seven  degrees,  nine  minutes;  of  Juno,  thirteen  degrees; 
of  Ceres,  ten  degrees,  thirty-seven  minutes;  and  of  Pallas,  no 
less  than  thirty-four  degrees  and  a half,  which  is  nineteen  times 
greater  than  the  inclination  of  Mars,  and  twenty-seven  times 
greater  than  that  of  J upiter.  The  proportion  of  these  inclina- 
tions is  represented  in  the  following  figure: — 


Fig.  46. 


134 


ECCENTRICITY  OF  THEIR  ORBITS. 


Let  A B represent  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  line 
CD  will  represent  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  of  Pallas =34^- 
degrees;  E F \ the  inclination  of  the  orbit  of  Juno=  13  degrees; 
G H , the  inclination  of  Vesta’s  =7  degrees;  and  the  dotted  line 
the  inclination  of  that  of  Ceres  zz  10^-  degrees.  All  the  older 
planets  have  their  orbits  much  less  inclined  to  the  ecliptic, 
except  Mercury,  which  has  nearly  the  same  inclination  as  Vesta, 
so  that  the  zodiac  would  now  require  to  be  extended  nearly  five 
times  its  former  breadth,  in  order  to  include  the  orbits  of  all 
the  planets. 

2.  The  orbits  of  these  'planets  are  in  general  more  eccentric 
than  those  of  the  other  planets — that  is,  they  move  in  longer  and 
narrower  ellipses.  The  following  figure  nearly  represents  the 
orbit  of  Pallas,  and  the  orbit  of  Juno  is  nearly  similar.  S repre- 


Fig.  47. 


G 


sents  the  sun  in  one  of  the  foci  of  the  ellipse;  C \ the  centre; 
F \ the  upper  focus  of  the  ellipse;  and  the  whole  line  A B , the 
transverse  diameter.  Now,  the  distance,  S C,  from  the  sun  to  the 
centre,  is  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit.  This  eccentricity,  in  the 


INTERSECTION  OF  ORBITS  ILLUSTRATED. 


135 


case  of  Pallas,  amounts  to  more  than  64 ^ millions  of  miles. 
Consequently,  when  the  planet  is  at  B , which  is  called  its 
Aphelion,  or  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  it  is  double  its 
eccentricity,  or  the  whole  length  of  the  line  S F , further  distant 
from  the  sun  than  when  it  is  at  the  point  A , which  is  called  its 
Perihelion , or  least  distance  from  the  sun — that  is,  it  is  129 
millions  of  miles  further  from  the  sun  in  the  one  case  than  in 
the  other,  which  is  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  whole  transverse 
diameter  of  the  orbit,  A B.  Consequently,  its  motion  will  be 
much  slower,  by  several  hundreds  of  thousands  of  miles  a day, 
when  near  the  point  B,  its  aphelion,  than  when  near  its  peri- 
helion at  the  point  A , and  to  a spectator  on  its  surface,  the  sun 
will  appear  more  than  double  the  size  from  the  point  A , that  he 
does  from  the  point  B ; and  its  inhabitants  (if  any)  will  experi- 
ence a greater  difference  in  the  intensity  of  the  solar  light  which 
falls  upon  them,  in  different  periods  of  its  year,  than  there  is 
between  Venus  and  the  earth,  or  between  the  earth  and  Mars. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbits  of  the  older 
planets  is  comparatively  small.  The  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of 
Venus  is  less  than  half  a million  of  miles,  which  is  only  the 
part  of  the  transverse  diameter  of  its  orbit.  The  Earth’s  eccen- 
tricity is  1,618,000  miles,  or  the  part;  Jupiter’s,  ^ part; 
Saturn’s,  part;  and  that  of  Uranus,  about  ^ part;  whereas 
the  eccentricities  of  Pallas  and  Juno  amount  to  nearl y one- eighth 
part  of  the  transverse  axis  of  their  orbits.  Were  the  orbits  of 
the  old  planets  represented  by  figures  ten  times  larger  than  the 
above  diagram,  they  could  not -be  distinguished  from  circles. 
In  the  above  figure,  the  dotted  line,  G H,  is  the  conjugate , or 
shorter  diameter  of  the  ellipse.  When  the  planet  is  at  the 
points  G and  H,  it  is  said  to  be  at  its  mean  distance  from  the 
sun,  or  at  the  middle  point  between  its  greatest  and  its  least 
distance. 

3.  The  orbits  of  several  of  the  new  planets  cross  each  other . — 
This  is  a very  singular  and  unaccountable  circumstance,  in  re- 
gard to  the  planetary  orbits.  It  had  been  long  observed  that 
comets,  in  traversing  the  heavens  in  every  direction,  crossed  the 
orbits  of  the  planets;  but,  before  the  discovery  of  Pallas,  no  such 
anomaly  was  found  throughout  the  system  of  the  planets.  For 
the  orbits  of  all  the  other  planets  approach  so  nearly  to  circles, 
and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  so  many  millions  of  miles, 
that  there  is  no  possibility  of  such  intersection  taking  place. 


136 


INTERSECTION  OF  ORBITS  ILLUSTRATED. 


The  following  diagram  represents  the  intersection  of  the  orbits 
of  Ceres  and  Pallas: — 

Fig.  48. 


The  central  circle  represents  the  sun ; the  two  next  circles, 
the  orbits  of  the  earth  and  Mars;  and  the  two  outer  circles 
crossing  each  other,  those  of  Ceres  and  Pallas.  In  consequence 
of  this  intersection  of  their  orbits,  there  is  a possibility , espe- 
cially if  the  periods  of  their  revolutions  were  somewhat  more 
different  from  each  other,  that  the  two  planets  might  happen  to 
strike  against  each  other,  were  they  to  meet  near  the  points  A 
and  B , where  the  orbits  intersect — a very  singular  contingency 
in  the  planetary  system.  It  is  owing  to  the  very  great  eccen- 
tricity of  the  orbit  of  Pallas  that  it  crosses  the  orbit  of  Ceres. 
It  is  several  millions  of  miles  nearer  the  sun  in  its  perihelion 
(or  at  A , fig.  47),  than  Ceres,  when  in  the  same  point  of  its 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  NEW  PLANETS. 


J37 


orbit.  But  when  Pallas  is  in  its  aphelion  (or  at  B,  fig.  47)  its 
distance  from  the  sun  is  several  millions  of  times  greater  than 
that  of  Ceres  in  the  same  point  of  its  orbit.  Suppose  its  aphelion 
at  C,  fig.  48,  it  is  further  from  the  sun  than  Ceres,  and  nearer 
at  D,  its  perihelion.  The  same  things  happen  in  the  case  of  the 
other  two  planets,  particularly  Yesta.  Juno  is  further  from  the 
sun  at  its  aphelion  than  Ceres  in  the  same  point  of  its  orbit,  and 
Yesta  is  further  from  the  sun  in  its  aphelion  than  either  Juno, 
Ceres,  or  Pallas,  in  their  perihelions.  The  perihelion  distance 
of  Yesta  is  greater  than  that  of  Juno  or  Pallas.  Hence  it  fol- 
lows, that  Yesta  may  sometimes  be  at  a greater  distance  from 
the  sun  than  either  Juno,  Ceres,  or  Pallas,  although  its  mean 
distance  is  less  than  that  of  either  of  them  by  28  millions  of 
miles;  so  that  the  orbit  of  Vesta  crosses  the  orbits  of  all  the  other 
three , and  therefore  it  is  a possible  circumstance  that  a collision 
might  take  place  between  Vesta  and  any  of  these  three  planets, 
were  they  ever  to  meet  at  the  intersection  of  their  orbits.  Were 
such  an  event  to  happen,  it  is  easy  to  foresee  the  catastrophe 
that  would  take  place.  If  the  collision  of  two  large  ships,  which 
were  sailing  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  be  so  dreadful  as 
to  shatter  their  whole  frame,  and  sink  them  in  the  deep,  what  a 
tremendous  shock  would  be  encountered  by  the  impulse  of  a 
ponderous  globe,  moving  at  the  rate  of  forty  thousand  miles  an 
hour!  A universal  disruption  of  their  parts,  and  a derange- 
ment of  their  whole  constitution,  would  immediately  ensue;  their 
axes  of  rotation  would  be  changed;  their  courses  in  their  orbits 
altered;  fragments  of  their  substance  tossed  about  through  the 
surrounding  void,  and  the  heavens  above  would  appear  to  run 
into  confusion.  Though  we  cannot  affirm  that  such  an  event  is 
impossible,  or  will  never  happen,  yet  we  are  sure  it  can  never 
take  place  without  the  permission  and  appointment  of  Him  who 
at  first  set  these  bodies  in  motion,  and  who  superintends  both 
the  greatest  and  the  most  minute  movements  of  the  universe. 

4.  Another  peculiarity  in  respect  to  these  planets  is,  that 
they  revolve  nearly  at  the  same  mean  distances  from  the  sun . 
The  mean  distance  of  Juno  is  254  millions  of  miles;  that  of 
Ceres,  262,903,000;  and  that  of  Pallas,  262, 901,000;  which  is 
almost  the  same  as  Ceres.  This  is  a very  different  arrangement 
from  that  of  the  other  planets,  whose  mean  distances  are  im- 
mensely different  from  each  other;  Mars  being  50  millions  of 
miles  from  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  80  millions  from  the  orbits 
of  any  of  the  new  planets.  Jupiter,  270  millions  from  Pallas; 


138 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  NEW  PLANETS. 


Saturn,  412  millions  from  Jupiter;  and  Uranus,  900  millions 
from  Saturn.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  new  planets,  the 
planetary  system  appears  constructed  on  the  most  ample  and 
magnificent  scale,  corresponding  to  the  unlimited  range  of  in- 
finite space,  of  which  it  forms  a part. 

5.  These  new  planetary  bodies  perform  their  revolutions  in 
nearly  the  same  periods . The  period  of  Yesta  is  3 years,  7^- 
months;  that  of  Juno,  4 years,  4^  months;  of  Ceres,  4 years, 
7^  months;  and  of  Pallas,  4 years,  7^  months.  So  that  there 
are  only  three  months  of  difference  between  the  periods  of  Juno 
and  Ceres,  and  scarcely  the  difference  of  a single  day  between 
those  of  Ceres  and  Pallas.  Whereas  the  periods  of  the  other 
planets  differ  as  greatly  as  their  distances.  The  period  of  Mer- 
cury is  about  3 months;  of  Yenus,  7^  months;  of  Mars,  nearly 
2 years;  of  Jupiter,  12  years,  of  Saturn,  29^;  and  of  Uranus, 
nearly  84  years.  A planet  moving  round  the  sun  in  almost  the 
same  period,  and  at  the  same  distance  as  another,  is  a singular 
anomaly  in  the  solar  system,  and  could  scarcely  have  been  sur- 
mised by  former  astronomers. 

6.  Another  singularity  is,  that  these  bodies  are  all  much  smaller 
than  the  other  planets . Mercury  was  long  considered  as  the 
smallest  primary  planet  in  the  system,  but  it  is  nearly  four  times 
larger  in  surface  than  Ceres,  and  contains  eight  times  the  num- 
ber of  solid  miles.  Mars,  the  next  smallest  planet,  is  seventeen 
times  larger  than  Ceres;  and  Jupiter,  the  largest  of  the  planets, 
is  170,000  times  larger  than  Ceres,  when  their  cubical  contents 
are  compared.  The  planets  Yesta  and  Juno  are  smaller  than 
Ceres,  and  Pallas  is  only  a small  degree  larger.  It  is  probable 
that  all  these  four  bodies  are  less  in  size  than  the  secondary 
planets,  or  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus. 

Conclusions  respecting  the  Nature  of  the  New  Planets . — The 
anomalies  and  peculiarities  of  these  bodies — so  very  different 
from  the  order  and  arrangement  of  the  older  planets — open  a 
wide  field  for  reflection  and  speculation.  Having  been  accus- 
tomed to  survey  the  planetary  system  as  a scene  of  proportion, 
harmony,  and  order,  we  can  scarcely  admit  that  these  bodies 
move  in  the  same  paths,  and  are  arranged  in  the  same  order,  as 
when  the  system  was  originally  constructed  by  its  Omnipotent 
Contriver.  As  we  know  that  changes  have  taken  place  in  our 
sublunary  region,  since  our  globe  first  came  from  the  hands  of 
its  Creator,  so  it  is  not  contrary  either  to  reason  or  observation 
to  suppose  that  changes  and  revolutions,  even  on  an  ample  scale, 


CONCLUSIONS  RESPECTING  THE  NEW  PLANETS.  139 

may  take  place  among  the  celestial  orbs.  We  have  no  reason 
to  believe  in  the  “ incorruptibility”  of  the  heavenly  orbs,  as  the 
ancients  imagined,  for  the  planets  are  demonstrated  to  be  opaque 
globes  as  well  as  the  earth;  they  are  diversified  with  mountains 
and  vales,  and,  in  all  probability,  the  materials  which  compose 
their  surfaces  and  interior  are  not  very  different  from  the  sub- 
stances which  constitute  the  component  parts  of  the  earth.  I 
have  already  alluded  to  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Olbers,  that  the  new 
planets  are  only  the  fragments  of  a larger  planet  which  had  been 
burst  asunder  by  some  immense  irruptive  force,  proceeding  from 
its  interior  parts.  However  strange  this  opinion  may  at  first 
sight  appear,  it  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  either  very  im- 
probable or  extravagant.  We  all  profess  to  admit,  on  the 
authority  of  Revelation,  that  the  earth  was  arranged  in  perfect 
order  and  beauty  at  its  first  creation ; and  on  the  same  autho- 
rity we  believe  that  its  exterior  crust  was  disrupted;  that  “the 
cataracts  of  heaven  were  opened,  and  the  fountains  of  the  great 
deep  broken  up,”  and  that  a flood  of  waters  ensued  which  covered 
the  tops  of  the  loftiest  mountains,  which  transformed  the  earth 
into  one  boundless  ocean,  and  buried  the  immense  myriads  of 
its  population  in  a watery  grave.  This  was  a catastrophe  as 
tremendous  and  astonishing  as  the  bursting  asunder  of  a large 
planet.  Although  physical  agents  may  have  been  employed  in 
either  case  to  produce  the  effect,  yet  we  must  admit,  in  con- 
sistency with  the  Divine  perfections,  that  no  such  events  could 
take  place  without  the  direction  and  control  of  the  Almighty; 
and  that  when  they  do  happen,  whatever  appalling  or  disastrous 
effects  they  may  produce,  they  are  in  perfect  consistency  with 
the  moral  laws  by  which  his  universal  government  is  directed. 

We  know  that  a moral  revolution  has  taken  place  among  the 
human  race  since  man  was  created,  and  that  this  revolution  is 
connected  with  most  of  the  physical  changes  that  have  hap- 
pened in  the  constitution  of  our  globe;  and,  if  we  believe  the 
sacred  historian,  we  must  admit  that  the  most  prominent  of 
these  physical  changes  or  concussions,  was  the  consequence  or 
punishment  of  man’s  alienation  from  God,  and  violation  of  his 
laws.  As  the  principles  of  the  Divine  government  must  be 
essentially  the  same  throughout  every  part  of  the  boundless 
empire  of  the  Almighty,  what  should  hinder  us  from  concluding 
that  a moral  cause,  similar  to  that  which  led  to  the  physical  con- 
vulsions of  our  globe,  might  have  operated  in  the  regions  to 
which  we  allude,  to  induce  the  Governor  of  the  universe  to 


140 


PHYSICAL  AND  MORAL  REVOLUTIONS. 


undermine  the  constitution,  and  to  dash  in  pieces  the  fabric,  of 
that  world?  The  difference  is  not  great  between  bursting  a 
planet  into  a number  of  fragments,  and  cleaving  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth  asunder,  removing  rocks  and  mountains  out  of  their 
place,  and  raising  the  bed  of  the  ocean  from  the  lowest  abyss, 
so  as  to  form  a portion  of  elevated  land, — all  which  changes 
appear  to  have  been  effected  in  the  by-past  revolutions  of  our 
globe,  and  both  events  are  equally  within  the  power  and  the 
control  of  Him  “ who  rules  in  the  armies  of  heaven,  and  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,”  whatever  physical  agents  he  may 
choose  to  select  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  purposes.  In  the 
course  of  the  astronomical  discoveries  of  the  two  preceding  cen- 
turies, views  of  the  universe  have  been  laid  open  which  have 
tended  to  enlarge  our  conceptions  of  the  attributes  of  the  Deity, 
and  of  the  magnificence  of  that  universe  over  which  he  presides: 
and  who  knows  but  that  the  discovery  of  those  new  planets 
described  above,  and  the  singular  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  found,  are  intended  to  open  to  our  view  a new  scene  of  the 
physical  operations  of  the  Creator,  and  a new  display  of  the 
operations  of  his  moral  government?  For  all  the  manifestations 
of  God,  in  his  works,  are  doubtless  intended  to  produce  on  the 
mind,  not  only  an  intellectual,  but  also  a moral  effect;  and  in 
this  view  the  heavens  ought  to  be  contemplated  with  as  much 
reverence  as  the  revelations  of  his  word.  As  the  great  Sove- 
reign of  the  universe  is  described,  by  the  inspired  writers,  as 
being  the  “ King  Eternal  and  Invisible”  so  we  can  trace  his  per- 
fections, and  the  character  of  his  moral  government,  only,  or 
chiefly,  through  the  medium  of  those  displays  he  gives  of  him- 
self in  his  wonderful  operations,  both  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
And  since,  in  the  course  of  his  providence,  he  has  crowned  with 
success  the  inventive  genius  of  man,  and  led  him  on  to  make 
the  most  noble  discoveries  in  reference  to  the  amplitude  and 
grandeur  of  his  works,  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  that 
such  inventions,  and  such  discoveries,  both  in  the  minute  parts 
of  creation  and  in  the  boundless  sphere  of  the  heavens,  are  in- 
tended to  carry  forward  the  human  mind  to  more  expansive 
views  of  his  infinite  attributes,  of  the  magnificence  of  his  empire, 
and  of  the  moral  economy  of  the  government  which  he  has 
established  throughout  the  universe. 

The  hypothesis  of  the  bursting  of  a large  planet  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter  accounts,  in  a great  measure,  if  not  entirely, 
for  the  anomalies  and  apparent  irregularities  which  have  been 


METEORIC  PHENOMENA. 


141 


observed  in  the  system  of  the  new  planets;  and  if  this  supposi- 
tion be  not  admitted,  we  cannot  account,  on  any  principle  yet 
discovered,  for  the  singular  phenomena  which  these  planets  ex- 
hibit. Sir  David  Brewster,  who  has  entered  into  some  par- 
ticular discussions  on  this  subject,  after  stating  the  remarkable 
coincidences  between  this  hypothesis  and  actual  observation, 
concludes  in  the  following  words: — “ These  singular  resemblances 
in  the  motions  of  the  greater  fragments,  and  in  those  of  the 
lesser  fragments,  and  the  striking  coincidence  between  theory 
and  observation  in  the  eccentricity  of  their  orbits,  in  their  in- 
clination to  the  ecliptic,  in  the  position  of  their  nodes,  and  in 
the  places  of  their  aphelia,  are  phenomena  which  could  not  pos- 
sibly result  from  chance,  and  which  concur  to  prove,  with  an 
evidence  amounting  almost  to  demonstration,  that  the  four  new 
planets  have  diverged  from  one  common  node,  and  have  there- 
fore composed  a single  planet.” 

Another  species  of  phenomena,  on  which  a great  mystery  still 
hangs,  might  be  partly  elucidated,  were  the  above  hypothesis 
admitted,  and  that  is,  the  singular,  but  now  well-attested,  fact, 
of  large  masses  of  solid  matter  falling  from  the  higher  regions 
of  the  atmosphere,  or  what  are  termed  meteoric  stones.  Few 
things  have  puzzled  philosophers  more  than  to  account  for  large 
fragments  of  compact  rocks  proceeding  from  regions  beyond  the 
clouds,  and  falling  to  the  earth  with  great  velocity.  These 
stones  sometimes  fall  during  a cloudy,  and  sometimes  during  a 
clear  and  serene  atmosphere;  they  are  sometimes  accompanied 
by  explosions,  and  sometimes  not.  The  following  statements, 
selected  from  respectable  authorities,  will  convey  some  idea  of 
the  phenomena  peculiar  to  these  bodies.  The  first  description 
I shall  select  is  given  by  J.  L.  Lyons,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  and  con- 
tained in  the  “ Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society.”  It  is  en- 
titled, “ Account  of  the  Explosion  of  a Meteor,  near  Benares,  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  of  the  falling  of  some  Stones  at  the  same 
time.”  The  following  are  only  the  leading  particulars.  “ A 
circumstance  of  so  extraordinary  a nature  as  the  fall  of  stones 
from  the  heavens  could  not  fail  to  excite  the  wonder,  and  to 
attract  the  attention,  of  every  inquisitive  mind.  On  the  19th 
of  December,  1798,  about  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening,  a very 
luminous  meteor  was  observed  in  the  heavens,  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Benares,  and  the  parts  adjacent,  in  the  form  of  a large 
ball  of  fire:  it  was  accompanied  by  a loud  noise  resembling 
thunder,  and  a number  of  stones  fell  from  it,  about  fourteen 


142 


FALL  OF  STONES  AT  BENARES. 


miles  from  the  city  of  Benares.  It  was  observed  by  several 
Europeans,  as  well  as  natives,  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
It  was  likewise  very  distinctly  observed  by  several  European 
gentlemen  and  ladies,  who  described  it  as  a large  ball  of  fire, 
accompanied  with  a loud  rumbling  noise,  not  unlike  an  ill-dis- 
charged platoon  of  musquetry.  It  was  also  seen,  and  the  noise 
heard,  by  several  persons  at  Benares.  When  a messenger  was 
sent,  next  day,  to  the  village  near  which  they  had  fallen,  he  was 
told  that  the  natives  had  either  broken  the  stones  to  pieces,  or 
given  them  to  the  native  collector  and  others.  Being  directed 
to  the  spot  where  they  fell,  he  found  four,  most  of  which  the 
fall  had  buried  six  inches  deep  in  the  earth.  He  learned  from 
the  inhabitants,  that  about  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening,  when 
retired  to  their  habitations,  they  observed  a very  bright  light, 
proceeding  as  from  the  sky,  accompanied  with  a loud  clap  of 
thunder,  which  was  immediately  followed  by  the  noise  of  heavy 
bodies  falling  in  the  vicinity.  They  did  not  venture  out  to 
make  any  inquiries  till  next  morning,  when  the  first  circum- 
stance that  attracted  their  attention  was  the  appearance  of  the 
earth  being  turned  up  in  several  parts  of  their  fields,  where,  on 
examination,  they  found  the  stones.  Several  other  stones  of 
the  same  description  were  afterwards  found  by  different  persons. 
One  of  these  stones,  of  about  two  pounds  weight,  fell  through 
the  top  of  the  watchman’s  hut,  close  to  which  he  was  standing, 
and  buried  itself  several  inches  in  the  floor,  which  was  of  con- 
solidated earth.  The  form  of  the  more  perfect  stones  appeared 
to  be  that  of  an  irregular  cube,  rounded  off  at  the  edges,  but  the 
angles  were  to  be  observed  on  most  of  them.  At  the  time  the 
meteor  appeared,  the  sky  was  perfectly  serene,  not  the  smallest 
vestige  of  a cloud  had  been  seen  since  the  11th  of  the  month, 
nor  were  any  observed  for  many  days  after.  It  is  well  known 
there  are  no  volcanoes  on  the  continent  of  India,  and  therefore 
they  could  not  derive  their  origin  from  any  such  source;  and  no 
stones  have  been  met  with  in  the  earth,  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  which  bear  the  smallest  resemblance  to  those  now 
described.” 

On  the  13th  of  December,  1795,  a stone,  weighing  fifty-six 
pounds,  fell  near  Wold  cottage,  in  Yorkshire,  at  three  o’clock, 
p.m.  It  penetrated  through  twelve  inches  of  soil  and  six  inches 
of  solid  chalk  rock,  and  in  burying  itself  had  thrown  up  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  earth  to  a great  distance;  as  it  fell,  a number 
of  explosions  were  heard,  as  loud  as  pistols.  In  the  adjacent 


METEORIC  SHOWERS. 


143 


villages,  the  sounds  were  heard  as  of  great  guns  at  sea;  but  at 
two  adjoining  villages  the  sounds  were  so  distinct  of  something 
passing  through  the  air  to  the  residence  of  Mr.  Topham,  that 
five  or  six  people  came  up  to  see  if  anything  extraordinary  had 
happened  at  his  house.  When  the  stone  was  extracted,  it  was 
warm,  smoked,  and  smelt  very  strong  of  sulphur.  The  day  was 
mild  and  hazy,  but  there  was  no  thunder  nor  lightning  the 
whole  day.  No  such  stone  is  known  in  the  country,  and  there 
is  no  volcano  nearer  than  Vesuvius  or  Hecla.  The  constituent 
parts  of  this  stone  were  found  exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the 
stones  from  Benares.* 

On  the  26th  of  April,  1 803,  an  extraordinary  shower  of  stones 
happened  at  L’Aigle,  in  Normandy.  About  one  o’clock,  the 
sky  being  almost  serene,  a rolling  noise,  like  that  of  thunder, 
was  heard,  and  a fiery-globe  of  uncommon  splendour  was  seen, 
which  moved  through  the  atmosphere  with  great  rapidity. 
Some  moments  after,  there  was  heard  at  L’Aigle,  and  for  thirty 
leagues  round  in  every  direction,  a violent  explosion  which 
lasted  five  or  six  minutes;  after  which  was  heard  a dreadful 
rumbling,  like  the  beating  of  a drum.  In  the  whole  district 
there  was  heard  a hissing  noise,  like  that  of  a stone  discharged 
from  a sling,  and  a great  many  mineral  masses,  exactly  similar 
to  those  distinguished  by  the  name  of  meteor  stones , were  seen 
to  fall.  The  largest  of  these  stones  weighed  seventeen  pounds 
and  a half.  The  Vicar  of  St.  Michael’s  observed  one  of  the 
stones  fall  with  a hissing  noise  at  the  feet  of  his  niece  in  the 
court-yard  of  his  parsonage,  and  that  it  rebounded  more  than  a 
foot  from  the  pavement.  When  it  was  taken  up  and  examined, 
it  was  found  to  resemble  the  others  in  every  respect.  As  a 
wire  manufacturer  was  working  with  his  men  in  the  open  air, 
a stone  grazed  his  arm  and  fell  at  his  feet,  but  it  was  so  hot, 
that  on  attempting  to  take  it  up  he  instantly  let  it  fall  again. 
The  celebrated  Biot  was  deputed  by  government  to  repair  to 
the  spot,  and  collect  all  the  authentic  facts  in  relation  to  this 
phenomenon,  an  account  of  which  was  afterwards  published  in 
a long  memoir.  He  found  that  almost  all  the  residents  of  twenty 
hamlets  declared  that  they  were  eye-witnesses  of  the  shower  of 
stones,  which  was  darted  from  the  meteor.  The  interior  parts 
of  these  stones  resembled  those  of  all  the  meteorites  analyzed 

* See  a long  paper  on  tliis  subject,  by  E.  Howard,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  in  “ Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society,  of  London,”  for  1802. 


144 


METEORIC  SHOWERS. 


by  Messrs.  Howard  and  Vanquelin,  such  as  those  described 
above.  They  all  contain  silica,  magnesia,  oxyd  of  iron,  nickel, 
and  sulphur,  in  various  proportions.  Their  specific  gravity  is 
about  3^,  or  3^-  times  heavier  than  water. 

The  following  are  a few  brief  statements  in  relation  to  this 
subject.  In  1492,  Nov.  7th,  a stone  of  260  lib.  fell  at  Ensis- 
heim,  in  Alsace.  It  is  now  in  the  library  of  Colmar,  and  has 
been  reduced  to  150  lib.,  in  consequence  of  the  abstraction  of 
fragments.  The  famous  Gassendi  relates  that  a stone  of  a 
black  metallic  colour  fell  on  Mount  Vaision,  in  Provence, 
November  29th,  1637.  It  weighed  54  lib.,  and  had  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  human  head.  Its  specific  gravity  was  3^  times 
that  of  water.  1654,  March  30th  : A small  stone  fell  at  Milan, 
and  killed  a Franciscan.  1706,  June  7th  : A stone  of  72  lib. 
fell  at  Larissa,  in  Macedonia;  it  smelled  of  sulphur,  and  was 
like  the  scum  of  iron.  1751,  May  26th  : Two  masses  of  iron, 
of  71  lib.  and  16  lib.,  fell  in  the  district  of  Agram,  the  capital 
of  Croatia.  The  largest  of  these  is  now  in  Vienna.  1790, 
J uly  24  : A great  shower  of  stones  fell  at  Barbotan,  near  Roque- 
fort, in  the  vicinity  of  Bordeaux.  A mass,  fifteen  inches  in 
diameter,  penetrated  a hut,  and  killed  a herdsman  and  a bullock. 
Some  of  the  stones  weighed  25  lib.,  and  others  30  lib.  July, 
1810:  A large  ball  of  fire  fell  from  the  clouds  at  Shahabad, 
which  burned  five  villages,  destroyed  the  crops,  and  killed 
several  men  and  women.  Nov.  23rd,  1810  : Three  stones  fell  in 
the  commune  of  Charionville  and  neighbourhood  of  Orleans. 
These  stones  were  precipitated  perpendicularly,  and  without  the 
appearance  of  any  light  or  ball  of  fire.  One  of  them  weighed 
20  lib.,  and  made  a hole  in  the  ground  in  a perpendicular  direc- 
tion, driving  up  the  earth  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet.  It 
was  taken  out  half  an  hour  after,  when  it  was  still  so  hot  that 
it  could  scarcely  be  held  in  the  hand.  The  second  formed  a 
hole  three  feet  deep,  and  weighed  40  lib.  1812,  April  15th  : 
A stone,  the  size  of  a child’s  head,  fell  at  Erxleben,  and  a spe- 
cimen of  it  is  in  the  possession  of  Professor  Haussmann,  of 
Brunswick.  1814,  Sept.  1st : A few  minutes  before  midday, 
while  the  sky  was  perfectly  serene,  a violent  detonation  was 
heard  in  the  department  of  the  Lot  and  Garonne.  This  was 
followed  by  three  or  four  others,  and  finally  by  a rolling  noise, 
at  first  resembling  a discharge  of  musquetry,  afterwards  the 
rumbling  of  carriages,  and  lastly,  that  of  a large  building  fall- 
ing down.  Stones  were  immediately  afterwards  precipitated  to 


PECULIARITIES  OF  METEORIC  STONES. 


145 


the  ground,  some  of  which  weighed  18  lib.,  and  sunk  into  a 
compact  soil  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  nine  inches,  and  one  of 
them  rebounded  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground.  1818,  July 
29th  O.S.  : A stone  of  7 lib.  weight  fell  at  the  village  of  Slo- 
bodka,  in  Russia,  and  penetrated  nearly  sixteen  inches  into  the 
ground.  It  had  a brown  crust,  with  metallic  spots.  1825, 
10th  Feb.  : A meteoric  stone,  weighing  16  lib.  7 oz.,  fell  from 
the  air  at  Nanjemoy,  Maryland.  It  was  taken  from  the  ground 
about  half  an  hour  after  its  fall,  was  sensibly  warm,  and  had  a 
sulphureous  smell. 

Several  hundreds  of  instances  similar  to  the  above  might  be 
produced,  of  large  masses  of  stones  having  fallen  from  the  upper 
regions  upon  the  earth.*  These  stones,  although  they  have  not 
the  smallest  analogy  with  any  of  the  mineral  substances  already 
known,  either  of  a volcanic  or  any  other  nature,  have  a very 
peculiar  and  striking  analogy  with  each  other.  They  have  been 
found  at  places  very  remote  from  each  other,  and  at  very  dis- 
tant periods.  The  mineralogists  who  have  examined  them  agree 
that  they  have  no  resemblance  to  mineral  substances,  properly 
so  called,  nor  have  they  been  described  by  mineralogical  authors. 
They  have,  in  short,  a peculiar  aspect,  and  peculiar  characters, 
which  belong  to  no  native  rocks  or  stones  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  They  appear  to  have  fallen  from  various  points  of 
the  heavens,  at  all  periods,  in  all  seasons  of  the  year,  at  all  hours 
both  of  the  day  and  night,  in  all  countries  in  the  world,  on 
mountains  and  on  plains,  and  in  places  the  most  remote  from 
any  volcano.  The  luminous  meteor  which  generally  precedes 
their  fall  is  carried  along  in  no  fixed  or  invariable  direction ; 
and  as  their  descent  usually  takes  place  in  a calm  and  serene 
sky,  and  frequently  in  cloudless  weather,  their  origin  cannot  be 
traced  to  the  causes  which  operate  in  the  production  of  rain, 
thunderstorms,  or  tornadoes. 

From  a consideration  of  these  and  many  other  circumstances, 
it  appears  highly  probable,  if  not  absolutely  certain,  that  these 
substances  proceed  from  regions  far  beyond  the  limits  of  our 
globe.  That  such  solid  substances,  in  large  masses,  could  be 
generated  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  is  an  opinion 
altogether  untenable,  and  is  now  generally  discarded,  even  by 

* For  more  particular  details  on  this  subject,  the  reader  may  consult  “The 
Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,”  art.  Meteorite.  The  “ Edin.  Phil.  Journal,”  No.  2, 
pp.  221 — 255.  “ Phil.  Magazine,”  vol.  xiii.  “ Retrospect  of  Philosophical 

Discoveries,”  1805,  vol.  i.  pp.  201 — 210,  & c.  &c. 

L 


146 


REGIONS  WHENCE  THEY  PROCEED. 


most  of  those  philosophers  who  formerly  gave  it  their  support. 
That  they  have  been  projected  from  volcanoes  is  a hypothesis 
equally  destitute  of  support.  For  the  products  of  volcanoes  are 
never  found  at  any  great  distance  from  the  scene  of  their  forma- 
tion, and  the  substances  they  throw  out  are  altogether  different 
in  their  aspect  and  composition  from  meteoric  stones.  Besides, 
these  stones,  in  most  instances,  have  descended  to  the  earth  in 
places  removed  hundreds,  or  even  thousands,  of  miles  from  any 
volcanic  mountain,  and  at  times  when  no  remarkable  eruption 
was  known  to  take  place.  Perceiving  no  probability  of  their 
having  derived  their  origin  either  in  the  earth  or  the  atmo- 
sphere, Dr.  Hutton,  Poisson,  La  Place,  and  others,  conjectured 
that  they  were  projected  from  the  moon.  They  demonstrated 
the  abstract  proposition,  that  a heavy  body  projected  with  a 
velocity  of  6000  feet  in  a second,  may  be  carried  beyond  the 
sphere  of  the  moon’s  attraction,  and  come  within  the  attraction 
of  the  earth.  But  it  has  never  yet  been  proved  that  volcanoes 
exist  on  the  surface  of  the  moon;  and,  although  they  did  exist, 
and  were  as  large  and  powerful  as  terrestrial  volcanoes,  they 
would  have  no  force  sufficient  to  carry  large  masses  of  stone 
with  such  a rapid  velocity  over  a space  of  several  thousands  of 
miles.  Besides,  were  the  moon  the  source  of  meteoric  stones, 
ejected  from  the  craters  of  volcanoes,  we  should  expect  such 
volcanic  productions  to  exhibit  several  varieties  of  aspect  and 
composition,  and  not  the  precise  number  of  ingredients  which 
are  always  found  in  meteoric  stones.  From  a consideration  of 
the  difficulties  attending  this  hypothesis,  La  Place  was  after- 
wards induced  to  change  his  opinion. 

In  order  to  trace  the  origin  of  meteoric  stones,  we  are  there- 
fore under  the  necessity  of  directing  our  views  to  regions  far 
beyond  the  orbit  of  the  moon.  On  the  supposition  that  the 
bursting  of  a large  planet  was  the  origin  of  the  small  planets, 
Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  we  may  trace  a source  whence 
meteoric  stones  probably  originate.  “ When  the  cohesion  of  the 
planet  was  overcome  by  the  action  of  the  explosive  force,  a 
number  of  little  fragments,  detached  along  with  the  greater 
masses,  would,  on  account  of  their  smallness,  be  projected  with 
very  great  velocity;  and,  being  thrown  beyond  the  attraction 
of  the  greater  fragments,  might  fall  towards  the  earth,  when 
Mars  happened  to  be  in  the  remote  part  of  his  orbit.  When  the 
portions  which  are  thus  detached  arrive  within  the  sphere  of  the 
earth’s  attraction,  they  may  revolve  round  that  body  at  different 


THEIR  PROBABLE  ORIGIN. 


147 


distances,  and  may  fall  upon  its  surface,  in  consequence  of  a 
diminution  of  their  centrifugal  force;  or,  being  struck  by  the 
electric  fluid,  they  may  be  precipitated  upon  the  earth,  and  ex- 
hibit all  those  phenomena  which  usually  accompany  the  descent 
of  meteoric  stones.”  This  opinion  appears  to  have  been  first 
broached  by  Sir  David  Brewster,  and  is  stated  and  illustrated 
in  the  “ Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,”  art.  Astronomy , and  in 
vol.  ii.  of  his  edition  of  “ Ferguson’s  Astronomy.”  Though  not 
unattended  with  difficulties,  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  plausible 
hypothesis  which  has  yet  been  formed,  to  account  for  the  ex- 
traordinary phenomena  of  heavy  substances  falling  with  velocity 
upon  the  earth  through  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 

On  this  subject  I would  consider  it  as  premature  to  hazard 
any  decisive  opinions.  I have  laid  the  above  facts  before  the 
reader  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  exercise  his  own  judgment  and 
form  his  own  conclusion.  I have  stated  them  particularly  with 
this  view,  that  they  may  afford  a subject  of  investigation  and 
reflection.  For  all  the  works  and  dispensations  of  the  Almighty, 
both  in  the  physical  and  moral  world,  are  worthy  of  our  con- 
templation and  research,  and  may  ultimately  lead  both  to  im- 
portant discoveries  and  to  moral  instruction.  Though  “the 
ways  of  God”  are,  in  many  instances,  “ past  finding  out,”  yet  it 
is  our  duty  to  investigate  them  in  so  far  as  our  knowledge  and 
limited  powers  will  permit.  For  as  we  are  told,  on  the  highest 
authority,  that  “ the  works  of  the  Lord  are  great  and  marvel- 
lous,” so  it  is  declared  that  “ they  will  be  sought  out,”  or  in- 
vestigated, “ by  all  those  who  'have  pleasure  therein.”  There 
is,  perhaps,  no  fact  throughout  the  universe,  however  minute  in 
itself,  or  however  distant  from  the  scene  we  occupy,  but  is  cal- 
culated, when  properly  considered,  to  convey  to  the  mind  an 
impression  of  the  character  of  the  Deity  and  of  the  principles  of 
his  moral  government.  The  mere  philosopher  may  content 
himself  with  the  application  of  the  principles  of  chemistry  and 
mathematics  to  the  phenomena  of  matter  and  motion ; and  it  is 
highly  proper  and  necessary  that  both  chemical  and  mathe- 
matical analysis  be  applied  for  the  investigation  of  the  law's  and 
order  of  the  material  universe;  but  the  man  who  recognises  the 
principles  of  Divine  Revelation  will  rise  to  still  higher  views. 
From  nature  he  will  ascend  to  nature’s  God,  and  trace  the  in- 
visible perfections  of  the  Eternal  from  the  visible  scene  of  his 
works;  and,  from  his  physical  operations,  will  endeavour  to  learn 
something  of  the  order  and  economy  of  his  moral  administration. 

l 2 


148 


MORAL  REFLECTIONS  ON  THIS  SUBJECT. 


If  there  be  any  foundation  for  the  hypothesis  to  which  we 
have  adverted,  it  might  be  a question,  and  a subject  of  consider- 
ation, at  what  period  the  disruption  of  the  supposed  planet  may 
have  taken  place.  If  the  history  of  the  fall  of  meteoric  stones 
would  be  considered  as  throwing  any  light  on  this  question,  it 
will  follow,  that  such  an  event  must  have  taken  place  at  a very 
distant  period;  for  the  descent  of  such  stones  can  be  traced  back 
to  periods  more  than  a thousand  years  before  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era;  perhaps  even  to  the  days  of  Joshua,  when 
a shower  of  stones  destroyed  the  enemies  of  Israel,*  which 
would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  more  than  3000  years  must  have 
elapsed  since  such  an  event.  It  might  likewise  be  a subject  of 
inquiry,  why  the  Deity  has  exposed  the  earth  to  the  impulse  of 
such  ethereal  agents;  for  the  descent  of  meteoric  stones  is  evi- 
dently attended  with  imminent  danger  to  the  inhabitants  of  those 
places  on  which  they  fall.  The  velocity  and  impetus  with  which 
they  descend  are  sufficient  to  cause  instant  death  to  those  whom 
they  happen  to  strike,  and  even  to  demolish  human  habitations, 
as  happened  in  several  of  the  instances  above  recorded.  Would 
the  Deity  have  permitted  a world  peopled  with  innocent  beings 
to  be  subjected  to  such  accidents  and  dangers?  If  not,  is  it  not 
a presumptive  proof  that  man,  in  being  exposed  to  such  casual- 
ties from  celestial  agents,  as  well  as  from  storms,  earthquakes, 
and  volcanoes,  is  not  in  that  state  of  primeval  innocence  in 
which  he  was  created?  And  if  we  suppose  that  a moral  revolu- 
tion was  the  cause  of  the  catastrophe  which  happened  to  the 
planet  to  which  we  allude,  we  may  trace  both  a physical  and  a 
moral  connexion,  however  distant,  between  the  earth  and  that 
planet;  for  if  the  stones  to  which  we  allude  are  part  of  the 
wreck  of  that  world,  they  have  been  the  means  of  exciting  alarm 
among  various  tribes  of  the  earth’s  population,  and  of  producing 
destruction  and  devastation;  so  that  one  depraved  world  has 
been  the  instrument,  in  some  degree,  of  punishing  another. 

But  perhaps  I have  gone  too  far  in  such  speculations.  I have 
stated  them  with  the  view  of  showing  that  we  might  occasion- 
ally connect  our  moral  views  of  the  Deity  with  the  contempla- 

* These  stones,  in  our  translation  of  the  Bible,  are  called  hailstones,  hut 
without  any  reason,  since  the  original  word,  abenim , signifies  stones  in  general, 
according  to  the  definition  given  in  Parkhurst’s  Hebrew  Lexicon  ; and  in  the 
book  of  Job,  chap,  xxviii.  3,  the  word  is  translated  stones  of  darkness  ; mean- 
ing, undoubtedly,  metallic  stones,  or  metals,  which  are  searched  out  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth. 


MOTION  AND  DIURNAL  ROTATION  OF  JUPITER.  149 

tion  of  the  material  fabric  of  the  universe.  When,  through  the 
medium  of  our  telescopes  and  our  physical  investigations,  we 
obtain  a glimpse  of  the  order  and  economy  of  a distant  region  of 
the  universe,  it  may  be  considered  as  a new  manifestation  of  the 
Deity,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  deduce  from  it  those  instructions  it 
is  calculated  to  convey.  And  although  we  may  occasionally 
deduce  erroneous  conclusions  from  existing  facts,  yet  such  specu- 
lations and  reflections  may  sometimes  have  a tendency  to  excite 
an  interesting  train  of  thought,  and  to  inspire  us  with  an  ardent 
desire  of  beholding  the  scene  of  the  universe  and  the  plan  of  the 
Divine  administration  more  completely  unfolded,  in  that  world 
where  the  physical  and  moral  impediments  which  now  obstruct 
our  intellectual  vision  shall  be  for  ever  removed.* 

VI.  ON  THE  PLANET  JUPITER. 

Next  to  Pallas,  in  the  order  of  the  system,  is  the  planet 
Jupiter.  This  planet,  when  nearest  the  earth,  is  the  most 
splendid  of  all  the  nocturnal  orbs,  except  Venus  and  the  moon. 
Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  495  millions  of  miles,  and  the  cir- 
cumference of  its  orbit,  3,110,000,000  of  miles.  Around  this 
orbit  it  moves  in  11  years  and  315  days,  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
thirty  thousand  miles  every  hour.  When  nearest  to  the  earth, 
at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun,  it  is  about  400  millions 
of  miles  distant  from  us.  A faint  idea  of  this  distance  may  be 
acquired  by  considering  that  a cannon  ball,  flying  500  miles 
every  hour,  would  require  more  than  ninety-one  years  to  pass 
over  this  space;  and  a steam  carriage,  moving  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  an  hour,  would  require  nearly  two  thousand  three 
hundred  years  before  it  could  reach  the  orbit  of  Jupiter.  When 
at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  earth,  about  the  time  of  its  con- 
j unction  with  the  sun,  this  planet  is  distant  from  us  no  less  than 
590  millions  of  miles;  yet  its  apparent  size,  in  this  case,  does 
not  appear  very  much  diminished,  although  it  is  190  millions  of 
miles  further  from  us  in  the  latter  case  than  in  the  former. 
When  viewed  with  a telescope,  however,  it  appears  sensibly 
larger  and  more  splendid  at  the  period  of  its  opposition  than 
when  near  the  point  of  its  conjunction. 

Diurnal  Dotation . — This  planet  has  been  found  to  revolve 
around  its  axis  in  the  space  of  9 hours,  55  minutes,  and  49% 


* See  Appendix  to  Chap.  III.  and  IV. 


150 


rapidity  of  jupiter’s  motion. 


seconds.  This  discovery  was  made  by  observing  a small  spot 
in  one  of  the  belts,  which  appeared  gradually  to  move  across  the 
disk  of  the  planet.  Mr.  Hook  appears  to  have  first  observed  it 
in  the  year  1664;  and  in  the  following  year,  1665,  Cassini,  that 
accurate  observer  of  the  heavens,  perceived  the  same  spot,  which 
appeared  round,  and  moved  with  the  greatest  velocity  when  in 
the  middle,  but  was  narrower  and  moved  slower  as  it  approached 
nearer  the  edge  of  the  disk,  which  showed  that  the  spot  adhered 
to  the  body  of  Jupiter,  and  was  carried  round  upon  it.  This 
spot  continued  visible  during  the  following  year,  so  that  Cassini 
was  enabled  to  determine  the  period  of  Jupiter’s  rotation  to  be 
nine  hours  and  nearly  fifty-six  minutes.  This  rotation  is  far 
more  rapid  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  planets,  so  far  as  we 
know,  and  nearly  equals  the  velocity  of  Jupiter  in  his  annual 
course  round  the  sun.  The  circumference  of  this  planet  is 
278,600  miles,  and  therefore  its  equatorial  parts  will  move  with 
a velocity  of  28,000  miles  an  hour,  which  is  3000  miles  more 
than  the  equatorial  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface  move  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  rapid  velocity  of  the  tropical  regions  of  Jupi- 
ter, and  of  the  places  which  lie  adjacent  to  them,  will  have  the 
effect  of  rendering  the  weight  of  all  bodies  lighter  than  they 
would  be  were  the  motion  of  rotation  as  slow  as  that  of  the 
earth.  The  gravity  of  bodies  at  the  surface  of  J upiter  is  more 
than  twice  as  great  as  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  on  account  of 
his  superior  bulk;  so  that  a body  weighing  one  pound  at  the 
equatorial  surface  of  the  earth,  would  weigh  two  pounds  four 
ounces  and  a half  at  the  surface  of  Jupiter.  If,  therefore,  we 
were  transported  to  the  surface  of  that  planet,  we  should  be  a 
burden  to  ourselves,  being  pressed  down  with  more  than  double 
our  present  weight,  and  having  but  once  the  strength  to  support 
it.  But  Jupiter  is  eleven  times  larger  in  circumference  than  the 
earth;  and  hence,  if  both  planets  revolved  on  their  axis  in  the 
same  time,  the  centrifugal  force  on  Jupiter  would  be  eleven 
times  greater  than  with  us.  But  the  squares  of  the  number  of 
revolutions  performed  in  the  same  time  by  the  earth  and  Jupiter 
— that  is,  the  square  of  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  square  of 
nine  hours  fifty-six  minutes,  are  nearly  as  one  to  six;  therefore, 
a body  placed  on  Jupiter  will  have  sixty-six*  times  a greater 
centrifugal  force  than  with  us,  which  would  sensibly  relieve  the 
weight  of  the  inhabitants  if  they  stood  in  need  of  it.  This  rapid 


* That  is,  1x10=66. 


rapidity  of  Jupiter’s  rotation. 


151 


rotation  would  of  itself  relieve  them  of  one-eighth  or  one-ninth 
of  their  whole  weight;  or,  in  other  words,  a body  weighing 
eight  stone  at  the  equator  of  Jupiter,  if  the  planet  stood  still, 
would  gravitate  with  a force  of  only  seven  stone  on  the  com- 
mencement of  its  diurnal  rotation,  at  the  rate  at  which  we  now 
find  it. 

It  may  perhaps  be  surmised  by  some,  that  since  the  semi- 
diameter of  Jupiter  is  eleven  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
earth,  the  attraction,  or  weight,  of  bodies  on  its  surface  ought 
to  be  eleven  times  greater  than  on  the  surface  of  our  globe. 
This  would  be  the  case  if  the  matter  in  Jupiter  were  as  dense 
as  in  the  earth;  and  the  weight  of  bodies  would,  of  course,  be 
in  proportion  to  their  semi-diameter,  or  the  distance  of  the  sur- 
face from  the  centres  of  these  bodies.  But  the  density  of 
Jupiter  is  only  a little  more  than  that  of  water,  while  the  density 
of  the  earth  is  five  times  greater.  If  the  density  of  Jupiter 
were  as  great  as  that  of  the  earth,  and,  consequently,  the  weight 
of  bodies  on  its  surface  eleven  times  greater,  men  of  our  stature 
and  make  could  scarcely  be  supposed  to  support  eleven  times 
the  weight  of  such  bodies  as  ours,  but  behoved  to  be  almost 
chained  down  to  the  surface  of  the  planet  by  their  own  gravity; 
and  were  we  to  suppose  them  of  a larger  stature,  this  inconveni- 
ence would  become  the  greater;  for  the  least  of  any  species  of 
animated  beings  have  generally  the  greatest  nimbleness  and 
agility  of  motion.  This  circumstance  is  perhaps  one  of  the  rea- 
sons why  the  larger  planets  of  the  system  have  the  least  degree 
of  density;  for  if  Jupiter  were  composed  of  materials  as  dense  as 
those  of  Mercury,  organized  beings  like  man  would  be  unable, 
without  a supernatural  power,  to  traverse  the  surface  of  such  a 
planet. 

In  consequence  of  the  rapid  motion  of  Jupiter,  the  days  and 
nights  will  be  proportion  ably  short.  The  sun  will  appear  to 
move  through  the  whole  celestial  hemisphere,  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  horizon,  in  less  than  five  hours,  and  all  the 
planets  and  constellations  will  appear  to  move  with  the  same 
rapidity;  so  that  the  apparent  motions  of  all  these  bodies  will  be 
perceptible  to  the  eye  when  contemplating  them  only  for  a few 
moments,  excepting  those  which  appear  near  the  polar  regions; 
The  sky  of  this  planet  will  therefore  assume  an  air  of  sublimity 
superior  to  ours,  in  consequence  of  all  the  bodies  it  contains  ap- 
pearing to  sweep  so  rapidly  around,  and  to  change  their  positions 
in  so  short  a space  of  time.  As  Jupiter  moves  round  the  sun  in 


152 


MAGNITUDE  OF  JUPITER. 


4332^  of  our  days,  and  round  its  axis  in  nine  hours,  fifty- six 
minutes,  there  will  be  10,470  days  in  the  year  of  that  planet. 

Magnitude  and  Superficial  Contents  of  the  Globe  of  Jupiter . 
— This  planet  is  the  largest  in  the  system,  being  89,000  miles  in 
diameter,  and,  consequently,  fourteen  hundred  times  larger  than 
the  earth.  Its  surface  contains  24,884,000,000,  or  twenty-four 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-four  millions  of  square  miles, 
which,  at  the  rate  of  population  formerly  stated,  280  inhabitants 
to  a square  mile,  would  be  sufficient  for  the  accommodation  of 
6,967,520,000,000,  or  nearly  seven  billions  of  inhabitants,  which 
is  more  than  eight  thousand  seven  hundred  times  the  present 
population  of  our  globe,  and  nearly  fifty  times  the  number  of 
human  beings  that  have  existed  on  the  earth  since  its  creation. 
Although  the  one-half  of  this  planet  were  covered  with  water, — 
which  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case, — it  would  still  be  ample 
enough  to  contain  a population  more  than  four  thousand  times 
larger  than  that  of  our  globe.  If  such  a population  actually 
exist, — as  we  have  little  reason  to  doubt, — it  may  hold  a rank, 
under  the  Divine  government,  equal  to  several  thousands  of  worlds 
such  as  ours.  Such  an  immense  globe,  replenished  with  such  a 
number  of  intellectual  beings,  revolving  with  such  amazing 
rapidity  round  its  axis,  moving  forward  in  its  annual  course 
30,000  miles  every  hour,  and  carrying  along  with  it  four  moons 
larger  than  ours  to  adorn  its  firmament,  presents  to  the  imagina- 
tion an  idea  at  once  wonderful  and  sublime,  and  displays  a scene 
of  wisdom  and  omnipotence  worthy  of  the  infinite  perfections  of 
its  Creator. 

Discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  relation  to  Jupiter  by 
the  Telescope . — Jupiter  presents  a splendid  and  interesting  ap- 
pearance when  viewed  with  a powerful  telescope.  His  surface 
appears  much  larger  than  the  full  moon  to  the  naked  eye;  his 
disk  is  diversified  with  darkish  stripes;  his  satellites  appear 
sometimes  in  one  position,  and  sometimes  in  another,  but  gene- 
rally arranged  nearly  in  a straight  line  with  each  other.  Some- 
times two  of  them  are  seen  on  one  side  of  the  planet  and  two  on 
another;  sometimes  two  only  are  visible,  while  the  other  two 
are  eclipsed  either  by  the  disk  or  the  shadow  of  Jupiter;  and 
sometimes  all  the  four  may  be  seen  on  one  side  and  in  a straight 
line  from  the  planet,  in  the  order  of  their  distances,  so  that  these 
moons  present  a different  aspect  and  relation  to  each  other  every 
successive  evening. 

These  moons  were  first  seen  by  Galileo,  in  the  year  1610,  by 


BELTS  OF  JUPITER. 


153 


means  of  a telescope  he  had  constructed,  composed  of  two 
glasses,  a concave  next  the  eye,  and  a convex  next  the  object, 
which  magnified  about  thirty-three  times.  No  further  dis- 
coveries were  made  in  relation  to  this  planet  till  about  the  year 
1633,  when  the  belts  were  discovered  by  Fontana  Rheita,  Ric- 
cioli,  and  several  others.  They  were  afterwards  more  particu- 
larly observed  and  delineated  by  Cassini.  These  belts  appear 
like  dark  stripes  across  the  disk  of  the  planet,  and  are  generally 
parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the  planet’s  equator.  They  are 
somewhat  variable,  however,  both  as  to  their  number  and  their 
distance  from  each  other,  and  sometimes  as  to  their  position. 
On  certain  occasions,  eight  have  been  seen  at  a time;  at  other 
times,  only  one.  Though  they  are  generally  parallel  to  one  an- 
other, yet  a piece  of  a belt  has  been  seen  in  an  oblique  position 
to  the  rest,  as  in  fig.  49.  They  also  vary  in  breadth;  for  one 
belt  has  been  observed  to  have  grown  a good  deal  narrower  than 
it  was,  when  a neighbouring  belt  has  been  increased  in  breadth, 
as  if  the  one,  like  a fluid,  had  flowed  into  the  other.  In  favour 
of  this  opinion,  it  is  stated,  in  the  44  Memoirs  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences,”  that  a part  of  an  oblique  belt  was  ob- 
served to  lie  so  as  to  form  a communication  between  them,  as 
represented  in  fig.  49.  At  one  time,  says  Dr.  Long,  the  belts 
have  continued  without  sensible  variation  for  nearly  three 
months;  at  another  time,  a new  belt  has  been  formed  in  an  hour 
or  two.  They  have  sometimes  been  seen  broken  up,  and  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  face  of  the  planet,  in  which  state  they 
are  exhibited  in  some  of  the  delineations  of  Sir  W.  Herschel; 
but  this  phenomenon  is  extremely  rare,  and  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  noticed  by  any  other  observer.  In  the  year  1787, 
Schroeter  saw  two  dark  belts  in  the  middle  of  Jupiter’s  disk; 
and  near  to  them  two  white  and  luminous  belts,  resembling  those 
which  were  seen  by  Campani,  in  1664.  The  equatorial  zone, 
which  was  comprehended  between  the  two  dark  belts,  had  as- 
sumed a dark  grey  colour,  bordering  upon  yellow.  The  northern 
dark  belt  then  received  a sudden  increase  of  size,  while  the 
southern  one  became  partly  extinguished,  and  afterwards  in- 
creased into  an  uninterrupted  belt.  The  luminous  belts  also 
suffered  several  changes,  growing  sometimes  narrower,  and 
sometimes  one-half  larger  than  their  original  size. 

The  following  figures  represent  some  of  the  appearances  of 
the  belts  of  Jupiter: — 


154 


DIFFERENT  VIEWS  OF  JUPITER’S  BELTS, 


Fig.  49  represents  a view  of  Jupiter’s  belts  by  Cassini.  Fig.  50, 
a view  from  Dr.  Hook,  as  delineated  in  the  “ Philosophical 
Transactions”  for  1666,  which  was  taken  by  a sixty  feet  re- 
fracting telescope.  The  small  black  spot  on  the  middle  belt 
which  did  not  appear  at  the  beginning  of  the  observation,  and 
which  moved  about  a third  or  fourth  part  across  the  disk  in  the 
space  of  ten  minutes,  was  judged  to  be  the  shadow  of  one  of  the 


OPINIONS  RESPECTING  THESE  BELTS. 


155 


satellites  moving  across  the  disk  of  the  planet.  Fig.  51  ex- 
hibits a view  of  Jupiter  as  he  appeared  about  the  end  of  1832 
and  beginning  of  1833,  which  was  taken  by  means  of  an  achro- 
matic telescope,  with  magnifying  powers  of  150  and  180  times. 
Fig.  52  is  a view  taken  with  the  same  telescope  in  1837.  In 
this  view  the  principal  belt  near  the  planet’s  equator  appeared 
dark,  distinct,  and  well-defined;  but  the  other  two  belts,  at  either 
pole,  were  extremely  faint,  and  could  only  be  perceived  after  a 
minute  inspection.  Fig.  53  is  a view  in  which  a bright  and  a 
dark  spot  were  perceived  on  one  of  the  belts;  and  fig.  54  a view 
by  Sir  John  Herschel.  I have  had  an  opportunity  of  viewing 
Jupiter  with  good  telescopes,  both  reflecting  and  achromatic,  for 
twenty  or  thirty  years  past;  and,  among  several  hundreds  of 
observations,  I have  never  seen  above  four  or  five  belts  at  one 
time.  The  most  common  appearance  I have  observed  is  that  of 
two  belts,  distinctly  marked,  one  on  each  side  of  the  planet’s 
equator,  and  one  at  each  pole,  generally  broader,  but  much 
fainter  than  the  others.  I have  never  perceived  much  change 
in  the  form  or  position  of  the  belts  during  the  same  season,  but 
in  successive  years  a slight  degree  of  change  has  been  per- 
ceptible, some  of  the  belts  having  either  disappeared  or  turned 
much  fainter  than  they  were  before,  or  shifted  somewhat  their 
relative  positions.  But  I have  never  seen  Jupiter  without  at 
least  two  or  three  belts.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  belts, 
being  at  least  the  one-eighth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  planet 
in  breadth,  must  occupy  a space  at  least  1 1,000  miles  broad,  and 
278,000  miles  in  circumference;  for  they  run  along  the  whole 
circumference  of  the  planet,  and  appear  of  the  same  shape  during 
every  period  of  its  rotation.  It  is  probable  that  the  smallest 
belts  we  can  distinctly  perceive  by  our  telescopes  are  not  much 
less  than  a thousand  miles  in  breadth. 

What  these  belts  really  are,  has  been  a subject  of  speculation 
and  conjecture  among  astronomers,  but  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at 
any  definite  conclusion.  By  some  they  have  been  regarded  as 
immense  strata  of  clouds  in  the  atmosphere  of  Jupiter;  while 
others  imagine  that  they  are  the  marks  of  great  physical  changes 
which  are  continually  agitating  the  surface  of  this  planet.  I am 
inclined  to  think  that  the  dark  belts  are  portions  of  the  real  sur- 
face of  the  planet,  and  that  the  brighter  parts  are  something 
analogous  to  clouds,  or  other  substances  with  which  we  are  un- 
acquainted, floating  in  its  atmosphere,  at  a considerable  eleva- 
tion above  its  surface.  That  the  dark  belts  are  the  body  of  the 


156 


OPINIONS  RESPECTING  THESE  BELTS. 


planet  appears  highly  probable  from  this  consideration,  that  the 
spot  by  which  the  rotation  of  Jupiter  was  determined,  has  been 
always  found  in  connexion  with  one  of  the  dark  belts;  and  as 
this  spot  must  be  considered  as  a permanent  one  on  the  body  of 
Jupiter,  so  the  belt  with  which  it  is  connected  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a portion  of  the  real  body  of  the  planet.  It  is  absurd 
and  preposterous  to  suppose,  as  some  have  done,  that  the  changes 
on  the  surface  of  Jupiter  are  produced  by  physical  convulsions, 
occasioned  by  earthquakes  and  inundations.  For,  in  such  a 
case,  the  globe  of  Jupiter  would  be  unfit  for  being  the  peaceful 
abode  of  rational  inhabitants.  What  should  we  think  of  a world 
where  5000  miles  of  ocean  occasionally  inundated  a corre- 
sponding portion  of  the  land,  or  where  earthquakes  sometimes 
swallowed  up  continents  of  several  thousands  of  miles  in  length 
and  breadth?  Such  physical  catastrophes  recurring  every  year 
on  such  a splendid  and  magnificent  globe  as  Jupiter,  would  not 
only  render  it  unfit  for  the  habitation  of  any  beings,  but  would 
imply  a reflection  on  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  great 
Creator.  Whatever  opinions,  therefore,  we  may  adopt  respect- 
ing the  phenomena  of  this  planet,  they  ought  to  be  such  as  are 
consistent  with  the  idea  of  a habitable  world,  and  with  the  per- 
fections of  the  Deity.  Were  the  belts  of  Jupiter  permanent 
and  invariable,  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  account  for 
the  phenomena  which  appear  on  his  surface;  for  the  dark  belts 
might  be  considered  as  seas,  and  the  brighter  portions  of  his 
surface  as  land.  But  as  these  belts,  whether  bright  or  dark, 
are  found  to  be  variable,  we  must  have  recourse  to  another 
hypothesis  for  their  explanation,  or  be  content  in  the  meantime 
to  confess  our  ignorance.  Our  opinions  and  conjectures  respect- 
ing the  circumstances  of  other  worlds  are  too  frequently  guided 
merely  by  what  we  know  of  the  objects  and  operations  which 
exist  on  our  own  globe;  and  we  are  apt  to  think  that  the  ar- 
rangements of  other  globes,  destined  for  the  abode  of  intellectual 
beings,  must  be  similar  to  those  of  our  own.  We  talk  of  phy- 
sical convulsions,  earthquakes,  and  inundations,  in  Jupiter,  and 
of  volcanic  eruptions  in  the  sun  and  moon,  as  if  these  pheno- 
mena were  as  common  in  other  worlds  as  in  the  earth;  whereas 
it  is  not  improbable  that  they  are  peculiar  to  our  globe,  and 
that  they  are  connected  with  the  moral,  or  rather  demoralized , 
state  of  its  present  inhabitants.  There  is  an  infinite  variety  in 
the  system  of  nature;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  there  is  no 
world  in  the  universe  that  exactly  resembles  another.  Although 


OPINIONS  RESPECTING  THESE  BELTS. 


157 


Jupiter  moves  round  the  sun,  and  turns  upon  his  axis  by  the 
same  laws  which  direct  the  motions  of  our  globe,  yet  there  may 
be  as  great  a difference  in  the  arrangements  connected  with  this 
planet  and  those  of  the  earth,  as  there  is  between  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  earth  and  that  of  a planet  which  revolves  around  the 
star  Sirius.  Would  it  be  altogether  improbable  to  suppose,  that 
the  globe  of  Jupiter  is  partly  enclosed  within  a sphere  of  semi- 
transparent substance,  at  a considerable  elevation  above  his  sur- 
face, or  rather  within  parallel  rings  like  an  Armillary  sphere, 
composed  of  such  a substance,  which  vary  their  position,  and 
sometimes  surround  one  part  of  his  globe,  and  sometimes 
another?  These  rings,  of  whatever  substance  they  might  be 
composed,  might  serve  to  reflect  the  rays  of  the  sun,  so  as  to 
produce  an  addition  of  light  and  heat,  and  at  the  same  time,  by 
exhibiting  a variety  of  colours  and  motions,  to  diversify  and 
adorn  the  firmament  of  this  planet.  Almost  any  supposition  is 
preferable  to  the  idea  of  a continued  scene  of  physical  convul- 
sions. The  idea  now  thrown  out  is  not  more  extravagant  than 
that  of  a planet,  nearly  as  large  as  Jupiter,  being  surrounded 
with  two  concentric  rings.  Had  we  not  discovered  the  rings  of 
Saturn,  we  should  never  have  formed  the  idea  of  a world  en- 
vironed with  such  an  appendage.  As  a corroboration  of  the 
idea,  that  the  bright  stripes  which  appear  on  this  planet  sur- 
round its  body  at  a considerable  elevation,  it  has  been  observed 
by  Sir  John  Herschel,  “ that  the  dark  belts  do  not  come  up  in 
all  their  strength  to  the  edge  of  the  disk,  but  fade  away 
gradually  before  they  reach  it,” — an  almost  decisive  proof  that 
the  bright  belts  enclose  the  dark  ones,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
body  of  the  planet;  and  that  they  are  elevated  above  the  dark 
globe  of  Jupiter,  in  all  probability,  not  less  than  a thousand,  or 
two  thousand  miles.  In  all  my  late  views  of  this  planet,  with  a 
power  of  200  times,  I have  distinctly  marked  the  circumstance 
now  stated,  that  the  dark  belts  do  not  appear  to  reach  the  ex- 
treme margin  of  the  disk  of  J upiter. 

Whatever  opinion  we  may  form  as  to  the  constitution  of  this 
planet,  the  phenomena  it  presents  afford  a vast  field  for  investi- 
gation and  reflection.  If  it  be  a fact,  as  has  been  asserted  by 
credible  observers,  that  two  belts  have  gradually  disappeared 
during  the  time  of  an  observation,  and  that,  at  another  time,  a 
new  belt  has  been  formed  in  an  hour  or  two,  agents  far  more 
powerful  than  any  with  which  we  are  acquainted  must  have 
been  in  operation  to  produce  such  an  effect,  and  changes  more 


158 


PERMANENT  SPOTS  ON  JUPITER. 


extensive  than  any  which  take  place  in  our  terrestrial  sphere 
must  have  happened  in  the  regions  connected  with  Jupiter. 
For  some  of  the  belts  of  this  planet  are  from  five  to  ten  thou- 
sand miles  in  breadth;  and  if  those  alluded  to  extended  quite 
across  the  disk  of  the  planet,  they  must  have  been  more  than 
one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  miles  in  length.  Yet  such  a 
change  may  have  taken  place,  not  only  without  convulsions, 
causing  terror  and  confusion,  but  to  the  admiration  and  joy  of 
the  inhabitants  of  that  globe,  as  opening  up  a new  and  striking 
scene  in  the  canopy  of  heaven.  For,  if  we  suppose  such  bright 
belts  or  circles  as  we  have  imagined,  rapidly  to  shift  their  posi- 
tion in  the  canopy  above,  such  a grand  effect  might  in  a short 
time  be  produced. 

Besides  the  belts,  spots  of  different  kinds,  some  of  them 
brighter  and  some  darker  than  the  belts,  have  been  occasionally 
seen.  The  spot  by  which  Jupiter’s  rotation  was  determined  is 
the  largest,  and  of  the  longest  continuance,  of  any  hitherto 
observed.  Its  diameter  is  one-tenth  of  the  diameter  of  Jupiter, 
and  it  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  southern  belt.  Its 
centre,  when  nearest  that  of  the  planet,  is  distant  from  the 
centre  of  Jupiter  about  one-third  of  the  semi-diameter  of  the 
planet.  This  spot  was  first  perceived  by  Hook  and  Cassini,  in 
the  years  1664,  1665.  and  1666.  It  appeared  and  vanished 
eight  times  between  the  years  1665  and  1708.  From  1708  till 
1713  it  was  invisible;  the  longest  time  of  its  continuing  to  be 
visible  was  three  years,  and  the  longest  period  of  its  disappearing 
was  from  1708  to  1713.  It  has  evidently  some  connexion  with 
the  southern  belt;  for  it  has  never  been  seen  when  that  disap- 
peared, though  that  belt  has  often  been  visible  without  the  spot. 
Besides  this  ancient  spot,  as  it  is  called,  Cassini,  in  the  year 
1699,  saw  one  of  less  stability,  which  did  not  continue  of  the 
same  shape  and  dimensions,  but  broke  into  several  small  ones, 
of  which  the  revolution  was  but  9 hours  51  minutes;  and  two 
other  spots  which  revolved  in  9 hours,  52 ^ minutes.  The  large 
spot  described  above,  being  about  the  one-tenth  of  the  diameter 
of  Jupiter,  must  have  been  more  than  8000  miles  in  extent,  and 
consequently  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  earth.  When  Cas- 
sini had  assured  himself  of  the  period  of  rotation  from  the 
motion  of  this  spot,  he  made  a report  of  his  observations  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  calculated  the  precise  moment 
when  the  spot  would  appear  on  the  eastern  limb  of  the  planet, 
on  a future  day;  on  which  the  Academy  sent  a deputation  of 


SPLENDOUR  OF  JUPITER. 


159 


M.  Buot,  M.  Mariotte,  and  others,  to  be  present  at  the  observation; 
and  when  they  came  to  the  royal  observatory,  they  saw  the  spot 
in  the  position  predicted,  and  traced  its  motion  for  an  hour  or 
two,  till  the  heavens  began  to  be  overcast  with  clouds.  All  the 
observations  which  have  been  made  upon  this  spot  and  others, 
and  its  successive  appearance  and  disappearance,  perfectly  agree 
with  the  idea  of  bright  belts  enclosing  the  globe  of  Jupiter  at  a 
distance  from  his  surface,  and  varying  their  aspect  and  motions 
at  different  periods  of  time.  And  although  some  readers  may 
consider  it  as  a trifling  matter  to  dwell  with  such  particularity 
on  a spot  in  Jupiter,  yet  that  spot,  however  insignificant  it  may 
appear  through  our  telescopes,  may  be  more  spacious  and  im- 
portant in  the  system  of  nature  than  all  the  continents  and 
islands  of  our  globe,  and  may  form  a greater  portion  of  the 
divine  government  than  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth. 

There  is  a peculiar  splendour  in  the  appearance  of  Jupiter, 
both  through  the  telescope  and  to  the  naked  eye,  considering  his 
great  distance  from  the  sun  and  from  the  earth.  The  planet 
Mars  appears  comparatively  dull  and  obscure,  even  when  nearest 
the  earth,  when  it  is  only  fifty  millions  of  miles  distant;  while 
the  planet  J upiter,  which  is  350  millions  of  miles  further  dis- 
tant from  the  earth  and  from  the  source  of  light,  presents  a 
brilliancy  of  aspect  far  superior.  This  circumstance  seems  to 
indicate  that  there  is  some  apparatus  connected  with  the  globe 
of  Jupiter  calculated  to  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun  in  a peculiar 
manner,  both  on  the  surface  of  the  planet  itself,  on  its  moons, 
and  towards  other  planets.  Such  an  apparatus  is  not  only  con- 
sistent with  the  supposition  thrown  out  above,  but  tends  to  cor- 
roborate it;  and  however  strange  we  may  consider  the  idea  of 
brilliant  belts  surrounding  a planet,  yet  as  variety  is  stamped  on 
all  the  works  of  the  Creator,  and  as  no  world  is  precisely  like 
another,  the  dissimilarity  of  such  an  appendage  to  what  we 
know  of  our  own,  or  of  other  globes,  ought  to  be  no  argument 
against  its  existence.  If  we  wish  to  know  more  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  this  planet  than  what  we  have  hitherto  ascertained,  we 
must  endeavour  to  improve  our  telescopes,  and  to  increase,  in- 
definitely, the  number  of  observers.  Were  an  immense  number 
of  intelligent  observers  distributed  over  different  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  provided  with  the  best  telescopes — were  they  to  mark 
with  care  and  minuteness  the  phenomena  to  which  we  have 
adverted — were  they  to  delineate,  in  a series  of  drawings,  the 
various  aspects  of  this  planet  during  two  or  three  periodical  re- 


160 


SEASONS  AND  LIGHT  ON  JUPITER. 


volutions,  marking  the  periods  of  the  different  changes,  and  the 
positions  of  the  planet  with  respect  to  the  earth  and  the  sun, 
and  noting  at  the  same  time  the  positions  of  the  satellites,  when 
any  change  in  the  belts  took  place — we  might  possibly  ascertain 
something  more  of  the  nature  of  the  belts,  whether  dark  or 
bright,  of  the  periods  of  their  changes,  and  whether  these 
changes  be  influenced  by  the  attractive  power  of  the  satellites. 
For  if  any  appendage  is  connected  with  Jupiter,  composed  of  a 
substance  of  small  density,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  its 
positions  and  movements  would  be  affected  at  certain  times  by 
the  positions  of  the  satellites,  especially  when  they  all  happened 
to  be  situated  on  the  same  side  of  Jupiter. 

Seasons , Proportion  of  Light , fyc.,  in  Jupiter. — The  axis  of 
this  planet  being  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  motion, 
there  can  be  no  variety  of  seasons  similar  to  what  we  ex- 
perience. The  inclination  of  its  axis,  however,  is  stated  by 
some  astronomers  to  be  86  degrees,  54^  minutes;  or  3 degrees, 
5^  minutes,  from  the  perpendicular.  This  inclination  will  cause 
a slight  variety  of  seasons  at  different  periods  of  the  planet’s 
annual  revolution,  but  not  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  in  Mars, 
or  the  earth.  If  the  axis  of  Jupiter  were  as  much  inclined  to 
his  ecliptic  as  the  axis  of  the  earth,  his  polar  regions  would 
remain  in  darkness  for  nearly  six  years  without  intermission, 
just  as  the  places  around  our  north  and  south  poles  are  deprived 
of  the  light  of  the  sun  for  one-half  of  the  year.  There  will  be 
nearly  equal  day  and  night  in  every  part  of  the  surface  of  this 
planet;  but,  to  the  places  near  the  equator,  the  sun  will  appear 
to  rise  to  a high  elevation  above  the  horizon,  and  to  move 
through  the  heavens  with  great  rapidity,  while  near  the  polar 
regions  he  will  appear  to  move  comparatively  slow,  and  to  de- 
scribe only  a small  semicircle  above  the  horizon.  We  are  not  to 
imagine,  however,  that  “ everlasting  winter”  prevails  around 
the  poles  of  this  planet,  as  some  have  asserted,  because  the  sun 
never  rises  high  above  those  regions,  and  the  solar  rays  fall 
obliquely  upon  them.  For  there  may  be  arrangements  and 
compensations,  of  which  we  are  ignorant,  to  produce  nearly  as 
great  a degree  of  light  and  heat  in  the  polar  as  in  the  equatorial 
regions;  and  perhaps  the  bright  belts  to  which  we  have  adverted 
may  be  so  arranged  as  to  contribute  to  this  effect.  Nor  are  we 
to  imagine  that  there  is  no  variety  of  scenery  in  Jupiter,  because 
there  are  no  seasons  similar  to  ours.  For  every  degree  of 
latitude  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  will  produce  a diversity 


INTENSITY  OF  THE  SOLAR  LIGHT  ON  JUPITER.  161 


of  aspect;  and  the  variation  of  the  belts,  whatever  may  be  their 
arrangement,  and  of  what  substances  soever  they  may  consist, 
will  produce  a diversity  of  scenery  in  the  firmament  of  Jupiter, 
far  greater,  and  perhaps  far  more  magnificent  and  transporting 
than  anything  we  contemplate  in  our  terrestrial  abode. 

The  intensity  of  the  solar  light  on  the  surface  of  Jupiter  is 
twenty-seven  times  less  than  on  the  earth.  The  mean  apparent 
diameter  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  is  32  minutes, 
3 seconds;  but  the  solar  diameter  as  seen  from  Jupiter  is  only 
6 minutes,  9 seconds,  which  is  less  than  one-fifth  so  great  as  the 
sun  appears  to  us.  The  square  of  6'  9",  or  369",  is  136,161, 
and  the  square  of  32' 3",  is  3,697,929,  which,  divided  by  136,161, 
produces  a quotient  of  27^,  which  shows  that  the  surface  of  the 
sun,  as  seen  from  Jupiter,  is  more  than  twenty-seven  times  less 
than  he  appears  to  us.  And,  as  the  intensity  of  light  decreases 
in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  there  will  be  twenty- 
seven  times  less  light  on  this  planet  than  on  the  earth.  But  if 
the  intensity  of  the  light  be  increased  by  reflection  from  any 
substances  connected  with  this  planet,  or  if  the  inhabitants  have 
the  pupils  of  their  eyes  much  larger  than  ours,  all  the  objects 
around  them  may  appear  with  even  greater  splendour  than  on 
the  earth.  The  following  figures  will  show  to  the  eye  the  pro- 
portional size  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  Jupiter  and  from  the  earth. 
The  small  circle  shows  the  comparative  bulk  of  the  solar  orb  as 
seen  from  Jupiter;  and  the  larger  circle,  its  bulk  as  viewed  from 
the  earth. 


Fig.  55. 


M 


162  SPHEROIDAL  FIGURE  AND  DENSITY  OF  JUPITER. 


Nothing  particular  has  been  ascertained  respecting  an 
atmosphere  surrounding  this  planet.  Though  it  is  probable 
that  it  has  an  appendage  answering  the  purpose  of  an  atmo- 
sphere, yet  it  may  be  very  different,  in  its  nature  and  proper- 
ties, from  that  which  surrounds  the  earth.  And  if  the  planet 
be  surrounded  with  bright  belts,  as  we  have  supposed,  or  if 
the  bright  parts  of  its  surface  are  to  be  considered  as  something 
analogous  to  clouds  suspended  in  a body  of  air,  it  is  evident  that 
the  denser  parts  of  its  atmosphere  never  can  be  perceived  by 
us,  and  that  no  dimness  or  obscurity  is  to  be  expected  when  a 
fixed  star  approaches  its  disk.  Hence  M.  Schroeter,  when  he 
had  a very  clear  and  distinct  view  of  the  spots  and  belts,  when 
Jupiter  suffered  an  occultation  by  the  moon,  on  the  7th  April, 
1792,  could  perceive  nothing,  throughout  the  whole  observa- 
tion, indicative  of  a refractive  medium  near  the  margin  of  the 
planet. 

Jupiter  is  remarkable  on  account  of  his  spheroidal  figure * 
This  figure  is  obvious  to  the  eye,  when  viewing  the  planet  with 
a high  magnifying  power.  Nor  is  this  an  optical  illusion;  for 
both  diameters  have  been  accurately  measured  by  the  micro- 
meter; and  the  equatorial  diameter  is  found  to  be,  in  proportion 
to  the  polar,  nearly  as  fourteen  to  thirteen,  so  that  the  equa- 
torial is  more  than  6300  miles  longer  than  the  polar  diameter. 
This  oblate  figure  is  ascribed  to  the  swiftness  of  Jupiter’s  rota- 
tion, which  produces  a centrifugal  force,  which  has  a tendency 
to  make  the  equatorial  parts  more  protuberant  than  the  polar. 
From  calculations  formed  on  the  principles  of  physical  astro- 
nomy, it  is  found  that  the  proportion  above  stated  is  really  the 
degree  of  oblateness  which  corresponds,  on  those  principles,  to 
the  dimensions  of  this  planet  and  the  time  of  its  rotation;  so 
that  theory  perfectly  harmonizes  with  observation. 

The  density  of  this  planet,  compared  with  that  of  water,  is  as 
l^r  to  1 — that  is,  it  is  a small  fractional  part  denser  than  water. 
Its  mass,  compared  with  that  of  the  sun,  is  as  1 to  1067 — com- 
pared with  that  of  the  earth,  as  312  to  1,  that  is,  Jupiter  could 
weigh  312  globes  of  the  same  size  and  density  as  the  earth. 
The  eccentricity  of  its  orbit  is  23,810,000  miles;  and  the  incli- 
nation of  the  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  about  1 degree,  19  minutes. 
Its  mean  apparent  diameter  is  38  seconds,  and  its  greatest  dia- 
meter, when  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  47^  seconds.  Its  mean 
arc  of  retrogradation  is  9 degrees,  54  minutes,  and  its  mean 
duration  about  121  days.  The  retrogradation,  or  moving  con- 


DISTANCE  AND  ROTATION  OF  SATURN. 


163 


trary  to  the  order  of  the  signs,  commences  or  finishes  when  the 
planet  is  not  more  than  1 15  degrees  from  the  sun.  The  follow- 
ing figure  exhibits  a view  of  J upiter  and  his  satellites,  as  seen 
through  a good  telescope. 


Fig.  56. 


VII.  ON  THE  PLANET  SATURN. 

The  planet  Saturn  may  be  considered  in  almost  every  respect 
as  the  most  magnificent  and  interesting  body  within  the  limits 
of  the  planetary  system.  Viewed  in  connexion  with  its  satel- 
lites and  rings,  it  comprehends  a greater  quantity  of  surface 
than  even  the  globe  of  Jupiter;  and  its  majestic  rings  constitute 
the  most  singular  and  astonishing  phenomena  that  have  yet  been 
discovered  within  the  limits  of  our  system. 

Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  906  millions  of  miles,  which  is 
nearly  twice  the  distance  of  Jupiter;  and  the  circumference  of 
its  orbit  is  5,695,000,000  of  miles, — to  move  around  which  a 
cannon-ball  would  require  more  than  1300  years,  although  it 
were  moving  500  miles  every  hour.  But  a steam-carriage, 
moving  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour,  would  require  above 
32,500  years  to  complete  the  same  round.  When  nearest  the 
earth,  Saturn  is  81 1 millions  of  miles  distant  — an  interval  which 
could  not  be  traversed  by  a carriage  at  the  rate  now  stated,  in 
less  than  46*29  years;  and  even  a cannon-ball,  moving  with  the 
velocity  above  mentioned,  would  require  184  years.  So  that 
although  man  were  divested  of  a gravitating  power,  and  capable 
of  supporting  himself  amidst  the  ethereal  regions,  and  though 

m 2 


164 


PROPORTION  OF  LIGHT  ON  SATURN. 


he  were  invested  with  a power  of  rapid  motion  superior  to  any 
movement  we  perceive  on  earth,  before  he  could  reach  the 
middle  orbit  of  the  planetary  system,  or  one-fourth  of  its  dia- 
meter, it  would  require  a space  of  time  far  more  than  is  yet 
allotted  to  mortal  existence.  And  therefore  all  hope  of  per- 
sonally exploring  the  celestial  regions  is  completely  annihilated, 
so  long  as  we  are  invested  with  our  present  corporeal  vehicles, 
and  are  connected  with  this  terrestrial  abode. 

This  planet  revolves  around  the  sun  in  the  space  of  about 
29^  years,  or  in  10,758  days,  23  hours,  16  minutes,  34  seconds, 
which  is  its  siderial  revolution,  or  the  time  it  takes  in  moving 
from  a certain  fixed  star  to  the  same  star  again.  Through  the 
whole  of  its  circuit,  it  moves  at  the  rate  of  22,000  miles  every 
hour.  The  period  of  its  rotation  was  for  a long  time  unknown. 
About  a century  ago,  it  was  conjectured  by  some  astronomers 
that  it  was  accomplished  in  about  ten  or  eleven  hours.  It  was 
not,  however,  till  Sir  W.  Herschel  applied  his  powerful  telescopes 
to  Saturn  that  its  rotation  was  accurately  determined.  By 
certain  dark  spots  which  he  perceived  on  its  disk,  and  by  their 
change  of  position,  he  ascertained  that  the  diurnal  rotation  is 
performed  in  ten  hours,  sixteen  minutes,  and  nineteen  seconds.* 
It  is  remarkable  that  La  Place,  from  physical  considerations, 
had  calculated  the  rotation  of  Saturn  to  be  nearly  the  same  as 
above  stated,  before  Herschel  had  determined  it  by  direct  ob- 
servation. The  rotation  is  performed  on  an  axis  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  ring.  The  circumference  of  Saturn  being 
248,000  miles,  the  parts  about  the  equator  will  move  at  the 
rate  of  24,000  miles  an  hour.  Its  year  will  consist  of  25,150 
days,  or  periods  of  its  diurnal  rotation. 

Proportion  of  Light  on  Saturn . — This  planet  being  about 
9^  times  further  from  the  sun  than  the  earth,  it  will  receive 
only  the  one-ninetieth  of  the  light  which  we  receive;  for  the 
square  of  9|-  is  equal  to  90^.  This  quantity  of  light,  however, 
is  equal  to  the  light  which  would  be  reflected  from  a thousand 
full  moons  such  as  ours;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  tho 
beings  that  reside  in  this  planet  have  their  organs  of  vision  so 
constructed  as  to  be  perfectly  adapted  to  the  quantity  of  light 
they  receive;  and,  by  such  an  adaptation,  all  the  objects  around 
them  may  appear  as  splendidly  enlightened,  and  their  colours 

* Sir  John  Herschel  states  the  period  of  rotation  to  be  ten  hours,  twenty- 
nine  minutes,  seventeen  seconds. 


TELESCOPICAL  DISCOVERIES  ON  SATURN.  165 

as  vivid,  as  they  do  on  the  globe  on  which  we  live.  The  appa- 
rent diameter  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from  Saturn,  is  three  minutes, 
twenty-two  seconds;  but  his  mean  apparent  diameter,  as  seen 
from  the  earth,  is  equal  to  thirty-two  minutes,  three  seconds. 
This  proportion  of  size  in  which  the  sun  appears  from  the  earth 
and  from  Saturn,  is  represented  in  the  following  figure,  in 
which  the  small  circle  represents  the  size  of  the  sun  as  seen 
from  Saturn. 

Fig.  57. 


Discoveries  by  the  Telescope  .on  the  Body  of  Saturn . — The 
great  distance  of  this  planet  from  the  earth  prevents  us  from 
observing  its  surface  so  minutely  as  that  of  Jupiter.  Certain 
dusky  spots,  however,  have  of  late  years  been  occasionally  seen 
on  its  surface,  when  very  powerful  telescopes  were  applied,  and 
by  the  motion  of  these  its  diurnal  rotation  was  determined. 
Belts,  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Jupiter,  have  likewise  been 
seen.  Huygens,  more  than  160  years  ago,  states,  that  he  had 
perceived  five  belts  on  Saturn,  which  were  nearly  parallel  to 
the  equator.  Sir  W.  Herschel,  in  his  numerous  observations, 
also  observed  several  belts,  which,  in  general,  were  parallel 
with  the  ring.  On  the  11th  of  November,  1798,  immediately 
south  of  the  shadow  of  the  ring  upon  Saturn,  he  perceived  a 
bright,  uniform,  and  broad  belt,  and  close  to  it  a broad,  or 
darker,  belt,  divided  by  two  narrow  white  streaks,  so  that  he 


106 


MAGNITUDE  OF  SATURN. 


saw  five  belts,  three  of  which  were  dark,  and  two  bright.  The 
dark  belt  had  a yellow  tinge.  These  belts  cover  a larger  zone 
of  the  disk  of  the  planet  than  the  belts  of  Jupiter  occupy  upon 
his  surface.  With  a magnifying  power  of  200  times,  I have 
sometimes  seen  one  darkish  belt  on  the  body  of  Saturn;  but  it 
was  much  fainter  than  those  of  Jupiter.  It  does  not  appear  that 
these  belts  vary,  or  shift  their  positions,  as  the  belts  of  Jupiter 
are  found  to  do;  the  dark  ones  are  much  fainter  than  those  of 
Jupiter,  and  therefore  it  is  most  probable  that  they  are  perma- 
nent portions  of  the  globe  of  Saturn,  which  indicates  a diversity 
of  surface  and  configuration,  either  of  land  and  water,  or  of  some 
other  substances  with  which  we  are  unacquainted.  When  this 
planet  is  viewed  with  a good  telescope,  it  appears,  like  Jupiter, 
to  be  of  a spheroidal  figure,  or  somewhat  approaching  to  it.  lhe 
proportion  of  its  polar  to  its  equatorial  diameter  is  as  32  to  35, 
or  nearly  as  11  to  12;  so  that  the  polar  diameter  is  more  than 
6700  miles  shorter  than  the  equatorial,  which  is  a greater  dif- 
ference than  that  of  the  two  diameters  of  Jupiter.  Saturn  was 
generally  considered,  till  lately,  as  a regular  spheroid;  but  on 
the  12th  of  April,  1805,  Sir  W.  Herschel  was  struck  with  a 
very  singular  appearance  when  viewing  the  planet.  “ The 
flattening  of  the  poles  did  not  seem  to  begin  till  near  a very  high 
latitude,  so  that  the  real  figure  of  the  planet  resembled  a square, 
or  rather  a parallelogram,  with  the  four  corners  rounded  off 
deeply,  but  not  so  much  as  to  bring  it  to  a spheroid.”  It  is 
probable  that  the  action  of  the  ring,  or  its  attractive  power,  is 
the  cause  of  the  great  protuberance  which  is  found  about  the 
equatorial  regions  of  Saturn. 

Magnitude  and  Extent  of  Surface  on  Saturn. — This  planet  is 
about  79,000  miles  in  diameter,  and  nearly  a thousand  times 
larger  than  the  earth.  Its  surface  contains  more  than  19,600 
millions  of  square  miles,  and,  consequently,  at  the  rate  of  280 
inhabitants  to  a square  mile,  it  would  contain  a population  of 
5,488,000,000,000,  or  about  five  billions  and  a half,  which  is 
six  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty  times  the  present  number 
of  inhabitants  on  our  globe;  so  that  this  globe,  which  appears 
only  like  a dim  speck  on  our  nocturnal  sky,  may  be  considered 
as  equal  to  six  thousand  worlds  like  ours;  and  since  such  a noble 
apparatus  of  rings  and  moons  is  provided  for  the  accommodation 
and  contemplation  of  intelligent  beings,  we  cannot  doubt  that  it 
is  replenished  with  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousands  of  sensitive 


DENSITY  OF  SATURN. 


167 


and  rational  inhabitants;  and  that  the  scenes  and  transactions 
connected  with  that  distant  world  may  far  surpass  in  grandeur 
whatever  has  occurred  on  the  theatre  of  our  globe. 

Density  of  Saturn . — The  density  of  Saturn  compared  with 
that  of  the  earth  is  nearly  as  1 to  9;  compared  with  that  of 
water,  it  is  less  than  one-half,  so  that  the  mean  density  of  this 
planet  cannot  be  much  more  than  the  density  of  cork ; and,  con- 
sequently, the  globe  of  Saturn,  were  it  placed  in  an  immense 
ocean,  would  swim  on  the  surface,  as  a piece  of  cork,  or  light 
wood,  swims  in  a basin  of  water.  There  is  none  of  the  planets, 
so  far  as  we  know,  whose  density  is  so  small  as  that  of  Saturn, 
or  less  than  the  density  of  water.  We  are  not  to  imagine,  how- 
ever, that  the  materials  which  compose  the  surface  of  Saturn  are 
as  light  as  cork,  or  similar  substances;  for  anything  we  know  to 
the  contrary,  they  may  be  as  dense  as  the  rocks  and  mould  which 
compose  the  crust  of  our  globe.  We  have  only  to  suppose  that 
the  globe  of  Saturn  is  hollow,  or  merely  filled  with  some  elastic 
fluid,  and  that  the  solid  parts  of  its  exterior  crust  form  a shell 
of  a hundred  or  two  hundred  miles  in  thickness.  It  is  true,  in- 
deed, that  the  density  of  our  globe  increases  from  its  surface 
downwards,  perhaps  even  to  the  centre.  But  we  have  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  this  is  the  case  with  all  the  other  planets;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  most  probable  that  it  is  exactly  the  reverse  in  the 
case  of  Saturn;  for  if  the  materials  which  compose  that  planet 
were  to  increase  in  density  towards  the  centre,  the  substances  on 
its  surface  would  have  little  more  density  and  solidity  than  that 
of  a cloud  suspended  in  the  atmosphere.  And  we  know  that,  in 
all  the  works  of  the  Creator,  variety  is  one  grand  characteristic 
of  his  plans,  even  where  the  same  general  objects  are  intended 
to  be  accomplished,  and  the  same  general  laws  are  in  operation. 

From  want  of  correct  views  on  this  subject,  several  foolish 
and  erroneous  notions  have  been  entertained  and  circulated.  In 
a late  number  of  a popular  and  extensively  circulated  journal, 
when  treating  of  “ Planetary  Arrangements,”  it  is  stated,  that 
“ while  on  Mercury  a native  of  earth  would  scarcely  be  able  to 
drag  one  foot  after  another  for  the  strong  power  pulling  him  to 
the  ground,  he  could,  on  the  planet  Saturn,  leap  sixty  feet  high, 
as  easily  as  he  could  here  leap  a yard.”  Now,  both  these  posi- 
tions are  quite  erroneous;  for  although  the  density  of  Mercury 
is  about  double  the  density  of  the  earth,  and  nearly  that  of  lead, 
yet  the  bulk  of  the  two  planets  is  very  different,  the  diameter  of 


168 


GRAVITATING  POWER  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


the  earth  being  nearly  8000  miles,  while  that  of  Mercury  is  only 
3200,  and  the  force  with  which  a body  placed  on  their  surfaces 
gravitates  to  them  is  in  proportion  to  their  masses  divided  by 
the  squares  of  their  diameters . If  Mercury  were  as  large  as  the 
earth,  an  inhabitant  of  our  globe  placed  on  the  surface  of  that 
planet,  would  feel  himself  “ pulled  to  the  ground,”  as  if  he  were 
placed  on  a similar  ball  of  lead,  and  his  weight,  of  course,  would 
be  increased;  but,  as  matters  now  stand,  the  gravitation  of 
Mercury  is  only  a small  fraction  greater  than  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth;  so  that,  in  this  respect,  a “native  of  earth,”  and  par- 
ticularly an  inhabitant  of  Greenland,  might  walk  with  nearly  as 
much  ease  on  the  planet  Mercury  as  under  our  equator.  The 
same  considerations  show  the  absurdity  of  what  is  stated  in  rela- 
tion to  Saturn;  for  that  planet  is  ten  times  the  diameter  of  the 
earth;  and  though  its  density  is  nearly  as  small  as  that  of  cork; 
yet  its  immense  bulk  renders  the  force  of  gravity  at  its  surface 
somewhat  greater  than  even  on  the  earth,  and  almost  as  great  as 
on  the  surface  of  Mercury.  A body  which  weighs  one  pound  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  would  weigh  one  pound  and  four  drams 
if  removed  to  the  surface  of  Saturn;  so  that  a person,  instead  of 
being  able  to  “ leap  sixty  feet  high”  from  the  surface  of  this 
planet,  would  be  unable  to  leap  quite  so  high  as  he  can  do  on 
the  earth.  In  short,  there  is  not  a planet  in  the  solar  system, 
with  the  exception  of  Jupiter,  on  which  an  inhabitant  of  the 
earth  might  not  move  about  as  easily,  in  respect  to  gravitating 
power,  as  he  does  on  the  terraqueous  globe;  and  even  on  Jupiter 
he  would  experience  little  more  than  double  the  weight  he  now 
feels.  On  some  of  the  other  planets,  such  as  Mars  and  J uno, 
he  would  feel  somewhat  lighter  than  he  now  does,  but  not  nearly 
so  much  as  would  enable  him  to  leap  to  such  a height  as  above 
stated.  On  the  same  principle,  which  is  taken  for  granted  in 
the  above  quotation,  we  might  suppose  that  a person  would  feel 
much  lighter  were  he  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  because 
the  density  of  that  luminary  is  little  more  than  the  density  of 
water;  whereas,  in  consequence  of  his  immense  size,  the  gravi- 
tating power  would  be  twenty-seven  times  greater  than  at  the 
surface  of  our  globe.  For,  according  to  the  calculation  of 
La  Place,  a body  which,  at  the  earth’s  equator,  weighs  one 
pound,  if  transported  to  the  surface  of  the  sun,  would  weigh 
about  27\  pounds;  from  which  it  follows,  that  there  a heavy 
body  would  descend  about  425  feet  in  the  first  second  of  time; 


RINGS  OF  SATURN. 


169 


consequently,  were  a man  who  weighs  200  pounds  to  be  placed 
on  the  sun,  he  would  be  pressed  down  to  its  surface  with  a force 
equal  to  five  thousand  five  hundred  pounds,  or  nearly  two  tons 
and  a half,  which  would  fix  him  to  the  surface  without  power 
of  motion.  So  that  whatever  beings  may  inhabit  that  globe,  it 
is  not  fitted  for  the  residence  of  man  in  his  present  state  of 
organization. 

The  eccentricity  of  Saturn’s  orbit  is  49,000,000  of  miles,  which 
is  about  the  ^ T part  of  the  diameter  of  the  orbit.  Its  inclination 
to  the  ecliptic  is  2°  29^'.  Its  apparent  diameter,  as  seen  from 
• the  earth,  is  seventeen  seconds  six-tenths;  and  its  mean  daily 
motion,  two  minutes  of  a degree. 

VIII.  ON  THE  RINGS  OF  SATURN. 

Besides  the  appearances  above  described,  this  planet  is  en- 
circled with  a double  ring,  one  of  the  most  astonishing  phenomena 
which  have  yet  been  discovered  in  the  heavens,  and  therefore 
requires  a separate  and  particular  description. 

The  first  individual  who  perceived  a glimpse  of  Saturn’s  ring 
was  Galileo,  soon  after  the  invention  of  the  telescope.  He 
thought  he  saw  that  planet  appear  like  two  smaller  globes  on 
each  side  of  a large  globe;  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  that  “ Saturn 
was  in  the  shape  of  an  olive.”  In  the  year  1610,  he  published 
his  discovery  in  a Latin  sentence,  the  meaning  of  which  was, 
that  he  had  seen  Saturn  appear  with  three  bodies . After  viewing 
Saturn  in  this  form  for  two  years,  he  was  surprised  to  see  him 
become  quite  round,  without  his  adjoining  globes,  and  to  remain 
in  this  state  for  some  time,  and,  after  a considerable  period,  to 
appear  again  in  this  triple  form  as  before.  This  deception  was 
owing  to  the  want  of  magnifying  power  in  the  telescope  used  by 
Galileo;  for  the  first  telescope  constructed  by  this  astronomer 
magnified  the  diameters  of  objects  only  three  times;  his  second  im- 
proved telescope  magnified  only  eight  times;  and  the  best  tele- 
scope which,  at  that  time,  he  found  himself  capable  of  constructing, 
magnified  little  more  than  thirty  times ; and  with  this  telescope 
he  made  most  of  his  discoveries.  But  a telescope  of  this  power 
is  not  sufficient  to  show  the  opening  or  dark  space  between  the 
ring  and  Saturn  on  each  side  of  the  planet;  and  at  the  time 
when  it  appeared  divested  of  its  two  appendages,  the  thin  and 
dark  edge  of  the  ring  must  have  been  in  a line  between  his  eye 


170 


DOUBLE  RING  OF  SATURN. 


and  the  body  of  Saturn,  which  phenomenon  happens  once  every 
fifteen  years.  About  forty  years  after  this  period,  the  celebrated 
Huygens  greatly  improved  the  art  of  grinding  object  glasses; 
and  with  a telescope  of  his  own  construction,  twelve  feet  long, 
and  afterwards  with  another  of  twenty-three  feet,  which  mag- 
nified objects  one  hundred  times,  he  discovered  the  true  shape  of 
Saturn’s  ring,  and,  in  1659,  he  published  his  “ Sy sterna  Satur - 
niurn ,”  in  which  he  describes  and  delineates  all  its  appearances. 

It  was  suspected  by  astronomers,  more  than  a century  ago, 
that  the  ring  of  Saturn  was  double  or  divided  into  two  concentric 
rings.  Cassini  supposed  it  probable  that  this  was  the  case. 
Mr.  Pound,  in  the  account  of  his  observations  on  Saturn,  in  1723, 
by  means  of  Hadley’s  new  reflecting  telescope,  states  that  with 
this  instrument  he  could  plainly  perceive  “ the  black  list  in 
Saturn's  ring?  and  gives  an  engraving  of  the  planet  and  ring 
with  this  dark  stripe  distinctly  marked,  as  in  the  modern  views 
of  Saturn.*  Mr.  Hadley  likewise  statesf  that,  “ in  the  year 
1722,  with  the  same  telescope,  he  observed  the  dark  line  on  the 
ring  of  Saturn,  parallel  to  its  cirumference,  which  was  chiefly 
visible  on  the  ansae,  or  extremities  of  the  elliptic  figure  in  which 
the  ring  appears,  but  was  several  times  able  to  trace  it  quite 
round;  particularly  in  May,  1722,  he  could  discern  it  without 
the  northern  limb  of  Saturn,  in  that  part  of  the  ring  that  ap- 
peared beyond  the  globe  of  the  planet,  and  could  perceive  that 
the  globe  of  Saturn  reflects  less  light  than  the  inner  part  of  the 
ring.”  It  was  not,  however,  till  Sir  W.  Herschel  began  to 
make  observations  on  this  planet  with  his  powerful  telescopes, 
that  Saturn  was  recognised  as  being  invested  with  two  con- 
centric rings.  The  following  cut  (fig.  58)  exhibits  a view  of 
Saturn  and  his  rings,  nearly  in  their  respective  proportions,  as 
they  would  appear  were  they  placed  perpendicularly  to  our  line 
of  sight;  but,  on  account  of  the  oblique  angle  they  generally 
form  to  our  line  of  vision,  we  never  see  them  through  the  tele- 
scope in  this  position. 

* See  “ Philosophical  Transactions  ” No.  378,  for  July,  1723  ; and  Reid  and 
Gray’s  Abridgment,  vol.  vi.  p.  155. 

+ “ Philosophical  Transactions ,”  No.  378 ; or  Abridgment,  vol.  vi.  p.  154. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  SATURN’S  RINGS. 


171 


Fig.  58. 


The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  the  rings  as  determined 
by  the  observations  of  Sir  W.  Herschel,  which  are  here  expressed 
in  the  nearest  round  numbers.  Outside  diameter  of  the  exterior 
ring,  a d,  204,800  miles,  which  ts  nearly  twenty-six  times  the 
diameter  of  the  earth.  Inside  diameter  of  this  ring,  190,200 
miles;  breadth  of  the  dark  space  between  the  two  rings,  2839 
miles,  which  is  700  miles  more  than  the  diameter  of  our  moon, 
so  that  a body  as  large  as  the  moon  would  have  room  to  move 
between  the  rings.  Outside  diameter  of  the  interior  ring,  b , 
184,400,  and  the  inside  diameter,  146,300  miles.  Breadth  of 
the  exterior  ring,  7200  miles;  breadth  of  the  interior,  20,000 
miles,  or  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth;  so  that  the  interior 
ring  is  nearly  three  times  broader  than  the  exterior.  The 
thickness  of  the  rings  has  not  yet  been  accurately  determined. 
Sir  John  Herschel  supposes  that  it  does  not  exceed  a hundred 
miles.  “ So  very  thin  is  the  ring,”  says  Sir  John,  “ that  it  is 
quite  invisible,  when  its  edge  is  directly  turned  to  the  earth,  to 


172 


ROTATION  OF 


any  but  telescopes  of  extraordinary  power.”  On  the  19th  of 
April,  1833,  “the  disappearance  of  the  rings  was  complete  when 
observed  with  a reflector,  eighteen  inches  in  aperture,  and  twenty 
feet  in  focal  length.”*  The  breadth  of  the  two  rings,  including 
the  dark  space  between  them,  is  very  nearly  equal  to  the  dark 
space  which  intervenes  between  the  globe  of  Saturn  and  the 
inside  of  the  interior  ring.  It  appears  to  have  been  lately 
ascertained,  that  this  double  ring  is  not  exactly  circular,  but 
eccentric.  This  seems  to  have  been  first  observed  by  M.  Schwalz, 
of  Dessau,  in  1828.  He  informed  M.  Harding  of  it,  who 
thought  he  saw  the  same  thing;  M.  Harding  informed  Professor 
Schumacher,  who  applied  to  M.  Struve  to  settle  the  question  by 
means  of  the  superb  micrometer  attached  to  his  great  telescope. 
M.  Struve  measured  the  distance  between  the  ring  and  the  body 
of  the  planet  on  five  different  days,  and  ascertained  that  Saturn's 
ring  is  really  eccentric , and,  consequently,  that  the  centre  of  the 
planet  does  not  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  ring;  but  that 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  rings  oscillates  round  that  of  the 
body  of  Saturn,  describing  a very  minute  orbit.  This  is  con- 
sidered as  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  stability  of  the  system 
of  the  rings,  in  preventing  them  from  being  shifted  from  their 
equilibrium  by  any  external  force,  such  as  the  attraction  of  the 
satellites,  which  might  endanger  their  falling  upon  the  planet. 
That  this  double  ring  really  consists  of  two  concentric  rings,  was 
demonstrated,  says  Professor  Robinson,  “ by  a star  having  been 
seen  through  the  interval  between  them.” 

This  double  ring  is  now  found  to  have  a swift  rotation 
around  Saturn,  in  its  own  plane,  which  is  accomplished  in 
about  ten  hours  and  a half.  This  is  very  nearly  the  periodic 
time  which  a satellite  would  take  in  revolving  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  centre  of  Saturn.  This  rotation  was  de- 
tected by  observing  that  some  portions  of  the  ring  were  a little 
less  bright  than  others.  Sir  W.  Herschel,  when  examining  the 
plane  of  the  ring  with  a powerful  telescope,  perceived  near  the 
extremity  of  its  arms,  or  ansce,  several  lucid  or  protuberant 
points,  which  seemed  to  adhere  to  the  ring.  At  first,  he  ima- 
gined them  to  be  satellites,  but  afterwards  found,  upon  careful 

* Sir  John  Herschel  states  the  dimensions  of  these  rings  on  a somewhat 
lower  scale  than  what  his  father  had  determined.  He  says,  that  “ they  were 
calculated  from  Professor  Struve’s  micrometrical  measures ; but  admits  that 
some  of  the  dimensions  he  states  are  perhaps  too  small.” 


saturn’s  rings. 


173 


examination,  that  none  of  the  satellites  could  exhibit  such  an 
appearance,  and  therefore  concluded  that  these  points  adhered 
to  the  ring,  and  that  the  variation  in  their  position  arose  from  a 
rotation  of  the  ring  round  its  axis,  in  the  period  above  stated. 
The  circumference  of  the  exterior  ring  being  643,650  miles, 
every  point  of  its  outer  surface  moves  with  a velocity  of  more 
than  a thousand  miles  every  minute,  or  seventeen  miles  during 
one  beat  of  the  clock.  It  is  highly  probable  that  this  rapid 
rotation  of  the  ring  is  one  of  the  principal  causes,  under  the 
arrangements  of  the  Creator,  of  sustaining  the  ring,  and  pre- 
venting it  from  collapsing  and  falling  down  upon  the  planet. 
This  double  ring  is  evidently  a solid  compact  substance,  and  not 
a mere  cloud,  or  shining  fluid.  For  it  casts  a deep  shadow'  upon 
different  regions  of  the  planet,  which  is  plainly  perceived  by 
good  telescopes.  Besides,  were  it  not  a solid  arch,  its  centrifugal 
force,  caused  by  its  rapid  rotation,  would  soon  dissipate  all  its 
parts,  and  scatter  them  in  the  surrounding  space.  It  is  not 
yet  ascertained  whether  both  the  rings  have  the  same  period  of 
rotation.  This  magnificent  appendage  to  the  globe  of  Saturn 
is  about  30,000  miles  distant  from  the  surface  of  the  planet; 
so  that  four  globes  nearly  as  large  as  the  earth  could  be  inter- 
posed between  them;  it  keeps  always  the  same  position  with 
respect  to  the  planet — is  incessantly  moving  around  it — and 
is  carried  along  with  the  planet  in  its  revolution  round  the 
sun. 

The  surface  of  the  double  ring  does  not  seem  to  be  exactly 
plane.  One  of  the  ansae*  sometimes  disappears,  and  presents  its 
dark  edge,  while  the  other  ansa  continues  to  appear,  and  exhibits 
a part  of  its  plane  surface.  On  the  9th  of  October,  1714,  the 
ansae  appeared  twice  as  short  as  usual,  and  the  eastern  one 
much  longer  than  the  western.  On  the  first  of  the  same 
month,  the  largest  ansa  was  on  the  east  side;  on  the  12th,  the 
largest  ansa  was  on  the  west  side  of  Saturn’s  disk;f  which  led 


* The  parts  of  the  ring  about  the  ends  of  the  longest  axis,  reaching  beyond 
the  disk  of  the  planet,  are  called  the  ansce.  Airsa  signifies  handle , which  name 
was  given  when  telescopes  were  so  imperfect  as  to  represent  Saturn  as  a 
globe  with  two  small  knobs  on  each  side.  The  same  name  is  still  continued, 
though  it  is  somewhat  improper,  now  that  the  true  shape  of  this  appendage  is 
known.  Still  the  general  appearance  of  Saturn  is  somewhat  like  a globe  with 
an  ansa,  or  handle  on  each  side. 

+ Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  1715. 


174 


DIMENSIONS  OF 


the  observers,  even  at  that  period,  to  conclude  that  the  ring 
had  a rotation  round  the  planet.  On  the  1 1th  of  January,  1774, 
M.  Messier  observed  both  the  ansae  completely  detached  from 
the  planet,  and  the  eastern  one  larger  than  the  other.  In  1774, 
Sir  W.  Herschel  likewise  observed  Saturn  with  a single  ansa. 
From  these  observations,  it  has  been  concluded  that  there  are 
irregularities  on  the  surface  of  the  ring,  analogous,  perhaps,  to 
mountains  and  vales  of  vast  extent;  and  that  the  occasional  dis- 
appearance of  the  ansae  may  possibly  arise  from  a curvature  in 
its  surface.  Sir  W.  Herschel  was  of  opinion  that  the  edge  of  the 
exterior  ring  is  not  flat,  but  of  a spherical,  or  rather  spheroidal, 
form. 

Dimensions  of  Saturn! s Rings, — It  is  difficult  for  the  mind  to 
form  an  adequate  conception  of  the  magnitude,  the  mechanism, 
and  the  magnificence  of  these  wonderful  rings,  which  form  one 
of  the  most  astonishing  objects  which  the  universe  displays.  In 
order  to  appreciate,  in  some  measure,  the  immense  size  of  these 
rings,  it  may  be  proper  to  attend  to  the  following  statements: — 
Suppose  a person  to  travel  round  the  outer  edge  of  the  exterior 
ring,  and  to  continue  his  journey  without  intermission,  at  the 
rate  of  twenty-five  miles  every  day,  it  wrould  require  more  than 
seventy  years  before  he  could  finish  his  tour  round  this  immense 
celestial  arch.  The  interior  boundary  of  the  inner  ring  encloses 
a space  which  would  be  sufficient  to  contain  within  it  three  hun- 
dred and  forty  globes  as  large  as  the  earth ; and  the  outer  ring 
could  enclose  within  its  inner  circumference  five  hundred  and 
seventy-five  globes  of  the  same  magnitude,  supposing  every  por- 
tion of  the  enclosed  area  to  be  filled.  This  outer  ring  would 
likewise  enclose  a globe  containing  2,829,580,622,048,315,  or 
more  than  two  thousand  eight  hundred  billions  of  cubical  miles, 
which  globe  would  be  equal  to  more  than  ten  thousand  eight 
hundred  globes  of  the  size  of  the  earth.  In  regard  to  the  quantity 
of  surface  contained  in  these  rings,  the  one  side  of  the  outer  ring 
contains  an  area  of  4,529,401,800,  or  more  than  four  thousand 
five  hundred  millions  of  square  miles.  The  one  side  of  the  inner 
ring  contains  9,895,780,818,  or  nearly  ten  thousand  millions  of 
square  miles.  The  two  rings,  therefore,  contain  on  one  side 
above  fourteen  thousand  four  hundred  millions  of  square  miles; 
and  as  the  other  sides  of  the  rings  contain  the  same  extent  of 
surface,  the  whole  area  comprehended  in  these  rings  will  amount 
to  28,850,365,236,  or  more  than  twenty-eight  thousand  eight 


saturn's  rings. 


175 


hundred  millions  of  square  miles.  This  quantity  of  surface  is 
equal  to  146  times  the  number  of  square  miles  in  the  terraqueous 
globe,  and  is  more  than  588  times  the  area  of  all  the  habitable 
portions  of  the  earth.  Were  we  to  suppose  these  rings  in- 
habited, (which  is  not  at  all  improbable,)  they  would  accommo- 
date a population,  according  to  the  rate  formerly  stated,  of 
8,078,102,266,080,  or  more  than  eight  billions , which  is  equal 
to  more  than  ten  thousand  times  the  present  population  of  our 
globe;  so  that  these  rings,  in  reference  to  the  space  they  con- 
tain, may  be  considered,  in  one  point  of  view,  as  equal  to  ten 
thousand  worlds. 

Were  we  to  take  into  consideration  the  thickness  of  the  rings, 
we  should  find  a very  considerable  addition  to  the  area  above 
stated.  Supposing,  according  to  Sir  J.  Herschel’s  estimate,  that 
they  are  only  one  hundred  miles  thick,  the  area  of  the  exterior 
circumference  of  the  edge  of  the  outer  ring  will  be  64,365,700 
miles;  and  that  of  the  interior  edge,  59,777,100.  The  exterior 
edge  of  the  inner  ring  will  contain  an  area  of  57,954,200  square 
miles,  and  the  interior  edge,  45,980,000;  in  all,  228,077,000 
square  miles,  which  is  thirty-one  millions  of  square  miles  more 
than  the  whole  area  of  our  globe.* 

* It  has  been  supposed  by  some  late  astronomical  observers,  that  the  outer 
ring  of  Saturn  is  divided  into  smaller  rings.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
observations  on  which  this  opinion  is  founded.  Captain  Kater  in  a communi- 
cation to  the  “ Astronomical  Society  of  London,”  states,  that  on  Dec.  ] 7, 1825, 
with  an  excellent  reflector  by  Dollond,  of  68  inches  focus,  and  6f  aperture,  he 
fancied  that  “ he  saw  the  outer  ring  separated  by  numerous  divisions , extremely 
close , one  stronger  than  the  rest  dividing  the  ring  about  equally .”  A careful  ex- 
amination of  some  hours  confirmed  this  opinion.  On  January  16  and  17,  1826, 
he  believed  that  he  saw  the  divisions,  but  was  not  positive.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  same  divisions  were  seen  by  Mr.  Short,  hut  the  original  record  of  his  observa- 
tions cannot  be  found.  In  December,  1813,  at  Paris,  Professor  Quetelet  saw 
the  outer  ring  divided  with  the  achromatic  telescope  of  ten  inches  aperture  which 
was  exhibited  at  the  exposition.  He  mentioned  this  the  following  day  to  La 
Place,  who  observed  that  “ those  or  even  more  divisions  were  conformable  to 
the  system  of  the  world.”  The  above  observations  are  likewise  said  to  have 
been  confirmed  by  some  recent  observations  by  Decuppis,  at  Rome.  Some  ob- 
servations of  nearly  a similar  kind  are  recorded  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions as  having  been  made  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  who,  on  June  19,  20,  &c.,  1780, 
saw  “ a round  black  list  upon  the  ring  of  Saturn,  close  to  the  inner  side,  on  the 
preceding  arm  of  the  ring,  which  is  closer  to  the  inside  than  the  other  division 
is  to  the  outside ; but  it  is  only  visible  on  the  preceding  side  of  the  ring.”  From 
such  observations  as  the  above,  were  they  perfectly  correct,  we  might  be  led  to 
conclude,  that  Saturn  is  environed  with  a number  of  separate  rings.  But  a 
certain  degree  of  doubt  still  hangs  over  these  observations.  For  the  division 


176 


APPEARANCE  OF  THE  RINGS 


These  rings,  therefore,  exhibit  a striking  idea  of  the  power  of 
the  Creator,  and  of  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  his  plans 
and  operations.  They  likewise  display  the  depths  of  his  wisdom 
and  intelligence;  for  they  are  so  adjusted,  both  in  respect  to  their 
position  around  the  body  of  the  planet,  and  to  the  degree  of 
motion  impressed  upon  them,  as  to  prevent  both  their  falling 
in  on  the  planet,  and  their  flying  off  from  it  through  the  dis- 
tant regions  of  space.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  rings 
are  not  exactly  concentric  with  the  body  of  the  planet.  Now, 
it  is  demonstrable,  from  physical  considerations,  that  were  they 
mathematically  perfect  in  their  circular  form,  and  exactly  con- 
centric with  the  planet,  “ they  would  form  a system  in  a state 
of  unstable  equilibrium , which  the  slightest  external  power,” 
such  as  the  attraction  of  the  satellites,  “ might  completely 
subvert,  by  precipitating  them  unbroken  on  the  surface  of  the 
planet.”  For  physical  laws  must  be  considered  as  operating 
in  the  system  of  Saturn  as  well  as  in  the  earth  and  moon, 
and  the  other  planets;  and  every  minute  circumstance  must  be 
adjusted  so  as  to  correspond  with  these  laws.  “The  observed 
oscillation,”  says  Sir  J.  Herschel,  “ of  the  centres  of  the  rings 
about  that  of  the  planet  is,  in  itself,  the  evidence  of  a perpetual 
contest  between  conservative  and  destructive  powers,  both  ex- 
tremely feeble,  but  so  antagonizing  one  another  as  to  prevent  the 
latter  from  ever  acquiring  an  uncontrollable  ascendancy  and 
rushing  to  a catastrophe.”  “ The  smallest  difference  of  velocity 
between  the  body  and  rings  must  infallibly  precipitate  the  latter 
on  the  former,  never  more  to  separate;  consequently,  either  their 
motions  in  their  common  orbit  round  the  sun  must  have  been 
adjusted  to  each  other  by  an  external  power,  with  the  minutest 
precision,  or  the  rings  must  have  been  formed  about  the  planet 
while  subject  to  their  common  orbitual  motion,  and  under  the 
full  free  influence  of  all  the  acting  forces.”  Here,  then,  we  have 
an  evident  proof  of  the  consummate  wisdom  of  the  Almighty  Con- 
triver, in  so  nicely  adjusting  everything  in  respect  to  number, 
weight,  position,  and  motion,  as  to  preserve  in  undeviating  sta- 

of  the  outer  ring  was  not  seen  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  in  1792,  nor  by  Sir  J. 
Herschel  in  1826,  nor  by  Struve  in  the  same  year,  and  on  several  other  occa- 
sions, when  the  atmospheric  conditions  were  most  favourable,  it  has  not  been 
seen  by  Captain  Kater  himself.  We  must,  therefore,  suspend  our  opinion  on 
this  point,  till  future  observations  shall  either  confirm  or  render  doubtful  those 
to  which  we  have  referred. 


FROM  THE  SURFACE  OF  SATURN.  177 

bility  and  permanency  this  wonderful  system  of  Saturn;  and 
we  have  palpable  evidence  that  everything  conducive  to  this 
end  has  been  accomplished,  from  the  fact,  that  no  sensible  devi- 
ation has  been  observed  in  this  system  for  more  than  238 
years,  or  since  the  ring  was  discovered;  nor,  in  all  probability, 
has  there  ever  been  any  change  or  catastrophe  in  this  respect 
since  the  planet  was  first  created  and  launched  into  the  depths 
of  space. 

Appearance  of  the  Rings  from  the  Body  of  Saturn . — These 
rings  will  appear  in  the  firmament  of  Saturn  like  large  luminous 
arches,  or  semicircles,  of  light,  stretching  across  the  heavens  from 
the  eastern  to  the  western  horizon,  occupying  the  one-fourth  or  one- 
fifth  part  of  the  visible  sky.  As  they  appear  more  brilliant  than 
the  body  of  the  planet,  it  is  probable  that  they  are  composed  of 
substances  fitted  for  reflecting  the  solar  light  with  peculiar  splen- 
dour, and  therefore  will  present  a most  magnificent  and  brilliant 
aspect  in  the  firmament  of  Saturn.  Their  appearance  will  be 
different  in  different  regions  of  the  planet.  At  a little  distance 
from  the  equator  they  will  be  seen  nearly  as  complete  semicircles 
stretching  along  the  whole  celestial  hemisphere,  and  appearing 
in  their  greatest  splendour.  In  the  day-time  they  will  present 
a dim  appearance  like  a cloud,  or  like  our  moon,  when  the  sun 
is  above  the  horizon.  After  sunset  their  brightness  will  increase, 
as  our  moon  increases  in  brilliancy  when  the  sun  disappears,  and 
the  shadow  of  the  globe  of  Saturn  will  be  seen  on  their  eastern 
boundary,  directly  opposite  to  the  sun.  This  shadow  will  appear 
to  move  gradually  along  the  rings  till  midnight,  when  it  will  be 
seen  near  the  zenith,  or  the  highest  point  of  these  celestial  arches. 
After  midnight  it  will  appear  to  decline  to  the  western  horizon, 
where  it  will  be  seen  near  the  time  of  the  rising  of  the  sun. 
After  sunrise  its  brightness  decays,  and  it  appears  like  a cloudy 
arch  throughout  the  day.  The  following  circumstances  will  add 
to  the  interest  of  this  astonishing  spectacle: — 1.  The  rapid  mo- 
tion of  the  rings,  which  will  appear  to  move  from  the  eastern 
horizon  to  the  zenith  in  two  hours  and  a half.  2.  The  diversity 
of  surface  which  the  rings  will  exhibit;  for  if  we  can  trace  ine- 
qualities upon  these  rings  by  the  telescope,  at  the  distance  of 
more  than  800  millions  of  miles,  much  more  must  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Saturn  perceive  all  the  variety  with  which  they  are 
adorned,  when  they  are  placed  so  near  them  as  the  one-eighth 
part  of  the  distance  of  our  moon.  Every  two  or  three  minutes, 


178 


SCENES  CONNECTED  WITH 


therefore,  a new  portion  of  the  scenery  of  the  rings  will  make  its 
appearance  in  the  horizon,  with  all  their  diversified  objects;  and 
if  these  rings  be  inhabited,  the  various  scenes  and  operations 
connected  with  their  population  might  be  distinguished  from  the 
surface  of  Saturn  with  such  eyes  as  ours,  aided  by  our  most 
powerful  telescopes.  3.  The  motion  of  the  shadow  of  the  globe  of 
Saturn  in  a direction  contrary  to  the  motion  of  the  rings, — which 
shadow  will  occupy  a space  of  several  thousands  of  miles  upon 
the  rings, — will  form  another  variety  of  scenery  in  the  firmament. 
4.  If  the  two  rings  revolve  around  the  planet  in  different  periods 
of  time,  the  appearances  in  the  celestial  vault  will  be  still  more 
diversified, — then  one  scene  will  be  seen  rising  on  the  upper,  and 
another  and  a different  scene  rising  on  the  lower  ring;  and 
through  the  opening  between  the  rings,  the  stars,  the  planets, 
and  one  or  two  of  the  satellites,  may  sometimes  appear. 

Near  the  polar  regions  of  the  planet,  only  a comparatively 
small  portion  of  the  rings  will  appear  above  the  horizon,  dividing 
the  celestial  hemisphere  into  two  unequal  parts,  and  presenting 
the  same  general  appearances  now  described,  but  upon  a smaller 
scale.  Towards  the  polar  points,  the  rings  will,  in  all  probability, 
be  quite  invisible.  During  the  space  of  fourteen  years  and  nine 
months,  which  is  half  the  year  of  this  planet,  the  sun  shines  on 
the  one  side  of  these  rings  without  intermission,  and  during  the 
same  period  he  shines  on  the  other  side.  During  nearly  fifteen 
years,  therefore,  the  inhabitants  on  one  side  of  the  equator  will 
be  enlightened  by  the  sun  in  the  day-time,  and  the  rings  by  night, 
while  those  on  the  other  hemisphere,  who  live  under  the  dark  side 
of  the  ring,  suffer  a solar  eclipse  of  fifteen  years’  continuance, 
during  which  they  never  see  the  sun.  At  the  time  when  the 
sun  ceases  to  shine  on  one  side  of  the  ring,  and  is  about  to  shine 
on  the  other,  the  rings  will  be  invisible  for  a few  days  or  weeks 
to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Saturn. 

At  first  view,  we  might  be  apt  to  suppose  that  it  must  be  a 
gloomy  situation  for  those  who  live  under  the  shadow  of  the 
rings  during  so  long  a period  as  fifteen  years;  but  we  are  not 
acquainted  with  all  the  circumstances  of  their  situation,  or  the 
numerous  beneficent  contrivances  which  may  tend  to  cheer  them 
during  this  period,  and  therefore  are  not  warranted  to  conclude 
that  such  a situation  is  physically  uncomfortable.  We  know  that 
they  enjoy  the  light  of  their  moons  without  almost  any  interrup- 
tion; sometimes  two*  sometimes  four,  and  sometimes  all  their 


THE  RINGS  OF  SATURN. 


179 


seven  moons  are  shining  in  their  hemisphere,  in  one  bright 
assemblage.  Besides,  during  this  period  is  the  principal  oppor- 
tunity they  enjoy  of  contemplating  the  starry  firmament*  and 
surveying  the  more  distant  regions  of  the  universe,  in  which 
they  may  enjoy  a pleasure  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  what  is  felt 
amidst  the  splendour  of  the  solar  rays;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  multitudes  may  resort  to  these  darker  regions  for  the  purpose 
of  making  celestial  observations;  for  the  bright  shining  of  the 
rings  during  the  continuance  of  night  will,  in  all  probability, 
prevent  the  numerous  objects  in  the  starry  heavens  from  being 
distinguished.  The  very  circumstances,  then,  which  might,  at 
first  view,  convey  to  our  minds  images  of  gloom  and  horror,  may 
be  parts  of  a system  in  which  are  displayed  the  most  striking 
evidences  of  beneficent  contrivance  and  design.  It  must  be  a 
striking  scene  when  the  sun  is  of  a sudden  altogether  intercepted, 
without  any  apparent  cause,  not  to  return  for  fifteen  years;,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  when,  at  the  end  of  this  period,  his  light 
again  bursts  all  at  once  upon  the  astonished  beholders,  closing 
up,  as  it  were,  the  prospects  of  the  firmament,  and  diffusing 
his  splendour  on  every  surrounding  object;  and  both  events 
may  be  attended  with  sentiments  of  admiration  and  emotions 
of  delight.  At  certain  times  of  the  year  of  Saturn,  and  in 
certain  latitudes  from  his  equator,  the  sun  will  be  eclipsed  for  a 
short  time  every  day  at  noon,  by  the  upper  part  of  the  exterior 
ring,  according  as  he  declines  more  or  less  to  the  opposite  side; 
and  sometimes  he  will  be  partially  eclipsed  by  the  under  side  of 
the  exterior  ring,  and  the  upper  side  of  the  interior,  and  some- 
times will  be  seen  moving  along  the  interval  which  separates 
these  rings. 

The  following  figures  are  intended  to  convey  a rude  idea  of 
the  objects  connected  with  the  firmament  of  Saturn. 


180  VIEWS  OF  THE  RINGS  AS  SEEN  FROM  SATURN. 


Fig.  60. 


VARIETY  OF  SCENERY  IN  SATURNS  FIRMAMENT.  181 

Fig.  59  represents  the  appearance  of  the  rings  at  a little 
distance  from  the  planet’s  equator,  where  they  will  appear  nearly 
as  complete  semicircles.  A9  B represents  a portion  of  the  globe 
of  Saturn;  (7,  Z>,  the  shadow  of  Saturn,  as  it  appears  upon  the 
rings  at  midnight,  after  which  it  will  appear  to  move  gradually 
to  the  west,  till  sunrise,  when  it  will  disappear  below  the  horizon. 
The  sun,  partly  eclipsed  by  the  upper  and  lower  edge  of  the 
rings  in  the  day-time,  is  represented  at  e,  f g,  and  h.  The 
Other  objects  are  some  of  the  satellites  in  different  phases,  and 
the  fixed  stars,  of  which  few  will  likely  be  seen,  some  of  them 
within,  and  some  of  them  beyond,  the  rings.  Fig.  60  represents 
the  rings  as  they  will  appear  from  places  near  the  polar  regions 
of  the  planet;  from  which  situations  they  will  appear  as  only 
small  segments  of  circles  near  the  horizon.  The  nearer  the  pole 
the  smaller  the  circles  will  appear. 

From  the  above  description,  it  appears  that  there  is  a great 
variety  in  the  scenery  presented  in  the  firmament  of  Saturn; 
and  this  scenery  is  different  as  viewed  from  different  regions  of 
the  planet.  From  the  regions  near  the  equator  the  rings  will 
appear  to  the  greatest  advantage,  and  in  all  their  splendour. 
From  these  positions  the  various  objects  connected  with  the 
rings  will  be  most  distinctly  observed,  as  the  spectators  will  be 
at  the  nearest  distance  from  the  inner  ring,  which  is  about  thirty 
thousand  miles.  At  the  latitude  of  45°  they  will  be  twenty 
thousand  miles  further  distant  from  them;  they  will  appear  at 
a much  lower  elevation  above  the  horizon,  a smaller  portion  of 
their  curve  will  be  seen,  and  their  breadth  will  occupy  a less 
space  in  the  heavens.  At  a higher  latitude,  a still  smaller  portion 
will  be  seen,  till  they  dwindle  to  a small  curve  or  speck  of  light 
in  the  horizon ; and  at  the  poles  they  will  be  quite  invisible,  by 
the  interposition  of  the  equatorial  parts  of  the  planet.  Immediately 
under  the  equator  the  light  of  the  rings  will  be  scarcely  visible, 
but  the  sun  will  occasionally  illuminate  the  under  edge  of  the 
interior  ring,  at /,  e , D , and  other  places;  which,  at  night,  will 
appear  like  a narrow  luminous  arch  stretching  directly  across  the 
zenith,  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  horizon,  and  diversified 
with  the  motion  of  the  shadow  of  Saturn.  Besides  the  different 
appearances  of  the  starry  regions,  the  various  aspects  of  the 
moons,  some  of  them  rising,  setting,  and  culminating,*  some  of 

* A heavenly  body  is  said  to  culminate  when  it  comes  to  the  meridian,  or 
the  highest  point  of  its  diurnal  course. 


182 


USE  OF  THE  RINGS. 


them  appearing  as  crescents,  half  moons,  and  full  enlightened 
hemispheres,  some  entering  into  an  eclipse,  and  some  emerging 
from  it,  and  all  of  them  appearing  to  move  with  a rapid  velocity 
around  the  sky,  will  greatly  add  to  the  variety  and  diversity  of 
scenery  which  appears  in  the  firmament  of  this  planet.  This 
diversity  of  aspect,  which  the  scenery  of  nature  presents  from 
different  regions  of  the  planet,  will,  in  all  probability,  have  a 
tendency  to  promote  frequent  intercourses  among  the  different 
tribes  of  its  inhabitants,  in  order  to  contemplate  the  different 
scenes  of  nature  and  providence  displayed  throughout  this  spa- 
cious and  magnificent  globe.  All  these  circumstances,  properly 
considered,  form,  of  themselves,  a presumptive  argument  to 
prove  that  the  sublime  and  exquisite  contrivances  connected  with 
this  planet  were  not  intended -merely  to  illuminate  barren  sands 
and  hideous  deserts,  but  to  afford  a comfortable  and  magnificent 
habitation  for  thousands  of  millions  of  rational  inhabitants,  who 
employ  their  faculties  in  the  contemplation  of  the  wonders  which 
surround  them,  and  give  to  their  Creator  the  glory  which  is  due 
to  his  name. 

It  has  often  been  asked,  as  a mysterious  question — “ What  is 
the  use  of  the  rings  with  which  Saturn  is  environed?”  This  is 
a question  which  I conceive  there  is  no  great  difficulty  in  answer- 
ing. The  following  considerations  will  go  a great  way  in  deter- 
mining this  question: — 1.  They  are  intended  to  produce  all  the 
varieties  of  celestial  and  terrestrial  scenery  which  I have  de- 
scribed above,  and  doubtless  other  varieties  with  which  we  are 
unacquainted;  and  this  circumstance  of  itself,  although  we  could 
devise  no  other  reason,  might  be  sufficient  to  warrant  the  Creator 
to  deviate  from  his  general  arrangements  in  respect  to  the  other 
planets.  For  variety  is  one  characteristic  of  his  plans  and  opera- 
tions, both  in  respect  to  the  objects  on  our  globe,  and  to  those 
which  exist  throughout  the  planetary  system,  and  it  is  accordant 
with  those  desires  for  novelty  and  variety  which  are  implanted 
in  the  minds  of  intelligent  beings.  2.  They  are  intended  to  give 
a display  of  the  grandeur  of  the  Divine  Being,  and  of  the  effects 
of  his  omnipotence.  They  are  also  intended  to  evince  his  inscrut- 
able wisdom  and  intelligence,  in  the  nice  adjustment  of  their 
motions  and  positions,  so  as  to  secure  their  stability  and  perma- 
nency, in  their  revolutions,  along  with  the  planet,  around  the 
sun.  3.  They  are  doubtless  intended  to  teach  us  what  varied 
scenes  of  sublimity  and  beauty  the  Deity  has  introduced,  or  may 
yet  introduce,  into  various  regions  throughout  the  universe.  We 


HABITABILITY  OF  SATURN’S  RINGS. 


183 


are  acquainted  with  only  a few  particulars  respecting  one  plane- 
tary system;  but  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  that  many 
millions  of  similar  or  analogous  systems  exist  throughout  the 
unlimited  regions  of  space.  In  some  of  those  systems  the 
arrangements  connected  with  the  worlds  which  compose  them 
may  be  as  different  from  those  of  our  globe,  and  some  of  the 
other  planets,  as  the  arrangements  and  apparatus  connected  with 
Saturn  are  different  from  those  of  the  planets  Yesta  or  Mars. 
Around  some  of  those  worlds  there  may  be  thrown,  not  only  two 
concentric  rings,  but  rings  standing  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  inclosing  and  revolving  round  each  other;  yea,  for  aught  we 
know,  there  may  be  an  indefinite  number  of  rings  around  some 
worlds,  and  variously  inclined  to  each  other,  so  that  the  planet 
may  appear  like  a terrestrial  globe,  suspended  in  the  middle  of 
an  armillary  sphere;  and  all  those  rings  may  be  revolving 
within  and  around  each  other  in  various  directions,  and  in  dif- 
ferent periods  of  time,  so  as  to  produce  a variety  and  sublimity 
of  aspect  of  which  we  can  form  no  adequate  conception.  There 
is  nothing  irrational  or  extravagant  in  these  suppositions.  For, 
had  we  never  discovered  the  rings  of  Saturn,  we  could  have 
formed  no  conception  of  such  an  appendage  being  thrown  around 
any  world,  and  it  would  have  been  considered  in  the  highest 
degree  improbable  and  romantic  had  any  one  broached  the  idea. 
We  are  therefore  led  to  conclude,  from  the  characteristic  of 
variety  impressed  on  the  universe,  that  Saturn  is  not  the  only 
planet  in  creation  that  is  surrounded  with  such  an  apparatus, 
and  that  the  number  and  position  of  its  rings  are  not  the  only 
models  according  to  which  the  -planetary  arrangements  in  other 
systems  may  be  constructed.* 

4.  Besides  the  considerations  now  stated,  the  chief  use,  I pre- 
sume, for  which  these  rings  were  created  was,  that  they  might 
serve  as  a spacious  abode  for  myriads  of  mtelligent  creatures . 
If  we  admit  that  the  globe  of  Saturn  was  formed  for  the  recep- 
tion of  rational  inhabitants,  there  appears  no  reason  why  we 
should  not  also  admit  that  the  rings  were  constructed  chiefly  for 
the  same  purpose.  These  rings,  as  we  have  already  seen,  con- 
tain a surface  of  about  thirty  thousand  millions  of  square  miles; 
and,  if  all  the  other  planets  be  inhabited,  it  is  not  likely  that  the 
Creator  would  leave  a space  equal  to  nearly  600  times  the  habit- 
able parts  of  our  globe,  as  a desolate  waste,  without  any  tribes  of 
either  sensitive  or  intelligent  existence.  It  forms  no  objection 
* It  is  supposed  the  new  planet  Neptune  is  surrounded  with  a ring. 


184 


TELESCOPIC  VIEWS  OF 


to  this  idea,  that  the  rings  are  flat , and  not  globular  like  the 
planets.  For  the  Creator  can  arrange  any  figure  of  a world  into 
a suitable  abode  for  intelligent  beings;  and,  on  our  globe,  we 
find  myriads  of  animated  beings  fitted  for  every  mode  of  exist- 
ence, and  in  situations  where  we  should  scarcely  ever  have  ex- 
pected to  see  them.  Besides,  three  or  four  centuries  have  scarcely 
elapsed  since  the  earth  was  generally  considered  as  a plane  in- 
definitely extended,  and  the  idea  of  its  being  a globe,  inhabited 
on  all  sides,  was  scouted  as  untenable,  and  considered  far  more 
ridiculous  than  it  can  be  now  to  suppose  the  flat  rings  of  Saturn 
as  serving  the  purpose  of  a habitable  world.  What  should 
hinder  them  from  serving  this  purpose,  as  well  as  the  globe  of 
Saturn?  They  are  solid  arches,  which  is  evident  from  their 
shadows,  and  their  rapid  motion;  they  contain  an  ample  space 
for  an  immense  population;  they  have  the  power  of  attraction, 
as  well  as  other  material  substances  connected  with  the  solar 
s}rstem;  they  are  capable  of  being  adorned  with  as  great  a diver- 
sity of  surface,  and  as  great  a variety  of  beautiful  and  sublime 
objects,  as  this  earth,  or  any  other  of  the  planetary  bodies;  and 
it  can  make  no  great  difference  in  the  enjoyments  of  sentient  and 
intellectual  beings  whether  they  live  on  a globe,  a spheroid,  a 
cylinder,  or  a plane  surface,  which  the  hand  of  Wisdom  and 
Omnipotence  has  prepared  for  their  reception;  while  it  displays, 
at  the  same  time,  the  variety  of  modes  in  which  the  Universal 
Parent  can  convey  happiness  to  his  numerous  offspring.  It  may, 
perhaps,  be  objected  to  the  idea  of  the  habitability  of  these  rings, 
that,  while  one  side  is  enlightened  during  fifteen  years  without 
intermission,  the  other  side  remains  in  the  dark  during  the  same 
period.  But  the  same  thing  happens  with  regard  to  extensive 
regions  on  the  globe  of  Saturn;  and  doubtless,  arrangements  are 
made  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  inhabitants  in  both  cases,  during 
this  period.  They  enjoy  in  succession,  and  sometimes  all  at  once, 
the  light  reflected  from  at  least  seven  moons,  and  they  behold, 
occasionally,  the  body  of  Saturn  reflecting  the  solar  rays  from 
certain  parts  of  its  surface,  and  appearing  like  a vast  luminous 
crescent,  in  different  degrees  of  lustre,  suspended  in  the  sky. 
(See  p.  180.) 

Many  other  views  and  descriptions  might  have  been  given  of 
the  phenomena  connected  with  the  system  of  Saturn,  were  it  not 
that  I do  not  wish  to  exhaust  the  patience  of  the  reader  by 
dwelling  too  long  on  one  subject.  The  circumstance  of  two  con- 
centric rings  thrown  around  a planet,  however  simple  it  may  at 


SATURN  AND  ITS  RINGS. 


185 


first  sight  appear,  involves  in  it  an  immense  variety  of  peculiar 
and  striking  phenomena,  in  regard  both  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
planet  and  of  the  rings;  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  mind  to 
form  a precise  and  definite  conception  of  every  particular.  To 
acquire  even  a general  view  of  such  phenomena,  it  would  be  re- 
quisite to  construct  a pretty  large  machine,  representing  the 
system  of  Saturn,  in  all  its  known  motions  and  proportions,  and 
to  make  it  revolve  around  a central  light.  An  instrument  of 
this  kind  is  as  necessary  for  illustrating  the  subject  on  which  we 
have  been  descanting,  as  an  orrery  or  planetarium  to  illustrate 
the  seasons  and  the  planetary  motions. 

Telescopic  Views  of  Saturn  and  its  Rings. — As  these  rings 
present  a variety  of  aspects,  as  seen  from  different  parts  of  the 
planet,  so  they  appear  to  assume  a different  appearance  at  dif- 
ferent times  when  viewed  through  our  telescopes.  Sometimes 
the  planet  appears  to  be  completely  divested  of  its  rings — some- 
times they  appear  only  like  a short  luminous  line,  or  streak,  on 
each  side  of  its  body — sometimes  they  appear  like  handles  on 
each  side  of  the  planet — and  at  other  times  like  a large  ellipse, 
or  oval,  almost  surrounding  the  body  of  the  planet.  These 
varied  aspects  of  the  rings  are  owing  to  the  following  circum- 
stances. The  rings  never  stand  at  right  angles  to  our  line  of 
vision;  otherwise  we  should  see  them  as  represented  in  fig.  58, 
(p.  171.)  Our  eye  is  never  elevated  more  than  thirty  degrees 
above  the  plane  of  the  rings.  Th q plane  of  these  rings  preserves 
a position  parallel  to  itself  in  every  part  of  the  planet’s  revolu- 
tion, being  constantly  inclined  at  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same, 
angle  to  the  orbit,  and  to  the  ecliptic,  which  angle  is  about 
twenty-nine  or  thirty  degrees.  The  nodes  of  the  rings  lie  in 
170°  and  350°  of  longitude,  which  correspond  to  the  twentieth 
degree  of  Virgo,  and  the  twentieth  of  Pisces.  When,  therefore, 
the  planet  is  in  these  points,  the  rings  entirely  disappear,  because 
the  thin  edge  of  the  outer  ring  only  is  turned  towards  our  eye, 
and  every  trace  of  it  is  lost  for  some  time,  except  the  shadow  of 
it,  which  appears  like  a dark  belt  across  the  planet.  This  dis- 
appearance happens  once  every  fifteen  years,  but  frequently  with 
different  circumstances.  Two  disappearances  and  two  reappear- 
ances may  occur  in  the  same  year,  but  never  more.  When 
Saturn  is  in  the  longitude  above  stated,  the  plane  of  the  rings 
passes  through  the  sun,  and,  the  light  then  falling  upon  it  edge- 
wise, it  is  to  us  no  longer  visible.  The  rings  likewise  disappear 
when  their  plane  passes  through  the  earth;  for  its  edge  being 


186  DISAPPEARANCE  OF  THE  RINGS. 

then  directed  to  the  eye,  and  being  too  fine  to  be  seen,  the  planet 
appears  quite  round  and  unaccompanied  by  its  rings.  When 
the  earth  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  rings  which  is  turned  from 
the  sun,  we  have  a third  cause  of  its  disappearance.  As  the 
planet  passes  from  the  ascending  to  the  descending  node  of  the 
rings,  the  northern  side  of  their  plane  is  turned  towards  the  sun. 
As  it  passes  from  the  descending  to  the  ascending  node,  the 
southern  side  of  the  rings  is  enlightened.  In  proportion  as  it 
recedes  f rom  these  nodes,  the  rings  appear  to  widen,  and  to  pre- 
sent a broader  ellipsis,  till  it  arrives  at  90°  from  either  node,  or 
in  80°  or  260°  of  longitude,  corresponding  to  20°  of  Gemini  and 
20°  of  Scorpio;  at  which  time  the  rings  will  be  seen  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  and  appear  almost  surrounding  the  globe  of 
Saturn.  At  the  time  of  the  greatest  opening  of  the  rings,  their 
shorter  diameter  appears  exactly  one-half  of  the  longer  diameter. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  different  appearances  of 
the  rings,  during  half  the  period  of  the  revolution  of  Saturn,  as 
seen  through  good  telescopes.  Fig.  60  shows  the  appearance  of 
Saturn,  when  the  plane  of  the  ring  is  parallel  to  the  line  of 
vision,  and  its  thin  edge  turned  to  the  eye.  In  this  manner  the 
planet  appeared  during  the  months  of  October,  November,  and 
part  of  December,  1832,  when  nothing  was  perceptible  except 
the  dark  shade  across  its  disk,  as  represented  in  the  figure.  The 
first  time  the  weather  permitted  observations  on  Saturn,  about 
this  period,  was  December  27th,  when  I perceived  the  ring  with 
a power  of  180,  appearing  like  a fine  thread  of  light  on  each  side 
of  the  planet,  as  represented  fig.  61.  About  the  beginning  of 
October,  the  plane  of  the  ring  passed  through  the  centre  of  the 
sun.  At  that  time,  the  inhabitants  of  Saturn,  who  had  been 
previously  in  darkness,  would  perceive  the  margin  of  the  sun 
projecting  over  the  edge  of  the  ring,  like  a brilliant  streak  of 
light,  and,  in  the  course  of  about  four  of  our  days,  or  nine  days 
of  Saturn,  the  whole  body  of  the  sun  would  appear  above  the 
plane  of  the  ring — gradually  rising  a little  higher  every  day,  as 
he  does  after  the  21st  of  March  to  the  north  pole  of  the  earth. 
The  ring  began  to  appear  a little  larger  during  the  months  of 
January,  February,  and  March,  1833;  but  in  April  it  again  dis- 
appeared, as  the  earth  was  then  in  the  plane  of  the  ring,  and  it 
continued  invisible  till  near  the  end  of  June.  After  which  it 
again  appeared,  as  represented  in  fig.  61,  and  continued  visible 
till  April,  1848,  when  it  again  disappeared,  and  will  be  invisible 
till  September.  In  about  a year  after  its  second  disappearance, 


VIEWS  OF  SATURN  S RINGS, 


187 


188 


THE  PLANET  URANUS. 


it  appeared  as  in  fig.  62.  In  about  a year  and  a half  after- 
wards, the  opening  between  the  rings  appeared  wider,  as  in 
fig.  63;  and  in  1837,  it  appeared  as  in  fig.  64.  In  fig.  65,  the 
rings  are  represented  at  the  utmost  extent  in  which  they  are 
ever  seen,  along  with  the  dark  space  which  separates  the  two 
rings,  which  can  only  be  distinguished  by  a telescope  magni- 
fying from  220  to  300  times.  In  this  position  it  was  seen  in 
1840.  It  has  again  passed  through  all  the  gradations  here  stated, 
and  is  at  present  quite  invisible,  but  will  reappear  towards  the 
latter  part  of  1848,  like  a small  line  of  light,  on  each  side  of 
Saturn,  as  represented  in  fig.  61.  Such  are  the  various  aspects 
under  which  Saturn  and  its  rings  appear,  as  viewed  through 
powerful  telescopes. 

IX.  ON  THE  PLANET  URANUS. 

Since  the  time  of  Newton,  when  the  physical  causes  of  the 
celestial  motions  began  to  be  studied  and  investigated,  astronomers 
have  had  their  attention  directed  to  the  power  or  influence  which 
the  planetary  bodies  exert  upon  each  other.  This  power  is 
termed  attraction  or  gravitation,  and  is  inherent  in  all  material 
substances,  so  far  as  our  knowledge  extends.  It  is  exerted  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  matter  directly,  and  the  distances 
inversely  of  the  respective  bodies;  the  planets,  in  their  nearest 
approach  to  each  other,  causing  some  slight  deviations  in  their 
orbits  and  motions.  Some  disturbances  or  inequalities  in  the 
motions  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  which  could  not  be  accounted  for 
from  the  mutual  action  of  these  planets,  led  certain  astronomers 
to  conclude  that  another  planet  of  considerable  magnitude  existed 
beyond  the  orbit  of  Saturn,  by  the  action  of  which  these  irregu- 
larities were  produced.  It  was  not,  however,  till  near  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  that  this  happy  conjecture  was  realized 
and  confirmed.  To  the  late  Sir  W.  Herschel  astronomy  is  in- 
debted for  discovering  a new  primary  planet,  which  had  been 
previously  unknown  to  all  former  astronomers. 

This  illustrious  astronomer,  when  residing  in  Bath,  had  con- 
structed reflecting  telescopes  of  a larger  size  and  with  higher 
powers  than  any  that  had  been  previously  in  use,  and  had  devoted 
his  unwearied  attention  to  celestial  observations.  While  pursuing 
a design  which  he  had  formed,  of  making  minute  observations 
on  every  region  of  the  heavens,  on  the  13  th  of  March,  1781, 
while  examining,  with  one  of  his  best  telescopes,  the  constellation 
of  Gemini,  he  observed  a star  near  the  foot  of  Castor,  the  light 


HISTORY  OF  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  URANUS. 


189 


of  which  appeared  to  differ  considerably  from  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring stars,  or  which  he  found  described  in  catalogues.  On 
applying  a higher  magnifying  power,  it  appeared  evidently  to 
increase  in  diameter;  and  two  days  afterwards  he  perceived  that 
its  place  was  changed,  and  that  it  had  moved  a little  from  its 
former  position.  From  these  circumstances  he  concluded  that 
it  was  a comet,  and  sent  an  account  of  it  as  such  to  the  astronomer 
royal.  As  a comet,  however,  it  seemed  particularly  singular  that 
no  tail  or  nebulous  appearance  could  be  perceived;  on  the 
contrary,  it  was  found  to  shine  with  a faint  steady  light,  some- 
what paler  than  that  of  Jupiter.  The  account  of  this  discovery 
soon  spread  throughout  Europe,  and  was  confirmed  by  observa- 
tions made  at  Paris,  Vienna,  Milan,  Pisa,  Berlin,  and  Stockholm. 
The  star  was  for  some  time  generally  considered  as  an  extra- 
ordinary comet,  free  of  all  nebulosity,  and  astronomers  were 
occupied  in  determining  the  parabolic  elements  of  its  course. 
((  The  President  Bochard  de  Saron,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  Paris,  and  Lexel,  an  astronomer  of  St.  Petersburg,  who  was 
in  London  at  the  time,  were  the  first  who  discovered  its  circular 
form,  and  calculated  the  dimensions  of  its  orbit.  It  was  no 
longer  doubted  that  Herschel’s  star  was  a new  planet  ; and  all 
subsequent  observations  verified  this  unexpected  result.”*  We 
have  here  a striking  proof  of  the  perfection  of  modern  theories; 
for  the  laws  regulating  the  motion  of  this  new  planet  were  deter- 
mined before  it  had  accomplished  the  twentieth  part  of  its  course, 
and  that  motion  was  not  less  accurately  known  than  that  of  other 
planets,  which  had  been  observed  during  so  many  centuries. 
Since  its  discovery,  to  the  present  time,  it  has  not  yet  moved 
much  more  than  two-thirds  of  a revolution  round  the  sun;  and 
yet  its  motions  are  calculated,  and  its  place  in  the  heavens  pre- 
dicted, with  as  much  accuracy  and  certainty  as  those  of  the  other 
planets — a circumstance  which  demonstrates  the  precision  of 
modern  astronomers,  and  which  should  lead  the  unskilful  in 
astronomy  to  rely  on  the  deductions  of  this  science,  however  far 
they  may  transcend  their  previous  conceptions. 

When  the  motion  of  this  new  planet  was  calculated,  the  points 
of  the  heavens  which  it  had  successively  occupied,  during  the 
preceding  century,  could  be  pointed  out;  and  it  occurred  to  some 
astronomers  that  it  might  possibly  have  been  observed  before, 

* Biographical  Memoir  of  Sir  W.  Herschel,  by  Baron  Fourier.  Read  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  June  7th,  1824. 


190  STAR  SUPPOSED  TO  HAVE  BEEN  URANUS; 

though  not  known  to  be  a planet.  Mr.  Bode,  of  Berlin,  who  had 
just  published  a work  containing  all  the  catalogues  of  zodiacal 
stars  which  had  appeared,  was  induced  to  consult  these  catalogues, 
in  order  to  discover  whether  any  star  marked  by  one  astronomer, 
and  omitted  by  another,  might  not  be  the  new  planet  in  question. 
In  the  course  of  this  inquiry  he  found  that  the  star  No.  964  in 
Mayer’s  catalogue  had  been  unobserved  by  others,  and  observed 
only  once  by  Mayer  himself,  so  that  no  motion  could  have  been 
perceived  by  him.  On  this,  Mr.  Bode  immediately  directed  his 
telescope  to  that  part  of  the  heavens  where  he  might  expect  to 
find  it,  but  without  success.  At  the  same  time  he  found,  by  cal- 
culation, that  its  apparent  place,  in  the  year  1756,  ought  to  have 
been  that  of  Mayer’s  star,  and  this  was  one  of  the  years  in  which 
he  was  busied  in  his  observations;  and  on  further  inquiry,  it  was 
found  that  the  star,  964,  had  been  discovered  by  Mayer,  on  the 
loth  of  September,  1756;  so  that  it  is  now  believed  that  this  star 
was  the  new  planet  of  Herschel.  It  appears  likewise  that  this 
star  was  seen  several  times  by  Flamstead,  the  astronomer  royal, 
in  the  year  1690;  once  by  Bradley;  and  eleven  times  by  Lemon- 
nier;  all  of  whom  considered  it  as  one  of  the  fixed  stars,  but 
never  suspected  that  it  was  a planetary  body.  The  discovery  of 
this  planet  enlarges  our  views  of  the  extent  of  the  solar  system, 
and  of  the  quantity  of  matter  it  contains,  far  more  than  if  planets 
equal  to  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  the  Moon,  Mars,  Vesta, 
Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  were  to  be  added  to  that  system;  for 
although  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye  on  the 
vault  of  heaven,  it  is  more  than  twenty  times  larger  than  all  these 
bodies  taken  together. 

After  this  body  was  ascertained  to  belong  to  the  planetary 
system,  it  became  a subject  of  consideration  by  what  name  it 
should  be  distinguished.  The  old  planets  were  distinguished  by 
names  borrowed  from  the  heathen  deities — a nomenclature  which, 
perhaps,  it  might  now  be  expedient  to  change;  but  Galileo  and 
Cassini  gave  to  the  celestial  bodies  they  discovered  the  names  of 
the  princes  who  had  patronized  their  labours.  Hence,  Galileo, 
when  he  had  discovered  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  sent  his  draw- 
ings of  them  to  his  patron,  Cosmo  Medici,  Great  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, in  honour  of  whom  he  called  them  Medicean  stars;  and 
Cassini  named  the  satellites  of  Saturn,  which  he  discovered,  after 
Louis  XIV.  In  imitation  of  these  discoveries,  Sir  W.  Herschel 
named  his  newly-discovered  planet  Georgium  Sidus,  in  honour 
of  his  patron,  George  the  Third.  But  foreign  astronomers,  for  a 


DISTANCE  AND  PERIOD  OF  URANUS.  191 

considerable  time,  gave  it  the  name  of  Herschel,  in  honour  of  the 
discoverer;  but  afterwards  hesitated  between  the  names  Cybele, 
Neptune,  and  Uranus . This  last  name,  derived  from  one  of  the 
Nine  Muses  who  presided  over  astronomy,  ultimately  prevailed, 
and  will  most  likely  distinguish  this  planet  in  future  generations, 
unless  the  present  nomenclature  of  the  planets  be  abolished. 

Distance  and  Period  of  Uranus . — Uranus  is  the  most  distant 
planet  of  the  solar  system,  so  far  as  our  knowledge  yet  extends; 
although  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  planets  may  exist 
even  beyond  its  orbit,  distant  as  it  is.  For  comets  pass  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  this  planet,  and  again  return  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  sun.  Its  distance  from  the  sun,  in  round  numbers,  is 
1,800,000,000, — that  is,  eighteen  hundred  millions  of  miles, 
which  is  double  the  distance  of  the  planet  Saturn.  When 
nearest  the  earth,  it  is  distant  from  us  about  1,705,000,000  of 
miles.  In  order  to  acquire  a rude  conception  of  this  distance, 
let  us  suppose  a steam  carriage  to  set  out  from  the  earth,  and  to 
move,  without  intermission,  twenty  miles  every  hour;  it  would 
require  more  than  nine  thousand,  seven  hundred,  and  thirty 
years,  before  it  could  reach  the  planet  Uranus;  so  that,  although 
the  journey  had  been  commenced  at  the  creation  of  our  globe,  it 
would  still  require  more  than  three  thousand  seven  hundred 
years  to  arrive  at  its  termination.  Even  a cannon  ball,  flying  at 
the  rate  of  twelve  thousand  miles  every  day,  would  require  three 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  years  to  reach  the  nearest  point  of  the 
orbit  of  this  planet.  Yet  the  comet  which  appeared  in  1835,  in 
all  probability,  pursues  its  course  far  beyond  the  orbit  of  Uranus, 
and  will,  doubtless,  visit  this  part  -of  our  system  again,  as  it  has 
done  before,  within  the  space  of  seventy-six  years,  although  it 
must  move  more  than  double  the  above  distance  before  it  return. 
The  circumference  of  the  orbit  in  which  Uranus  revolves  about 
the  sun  is  11,314,000,000  of  miles,  through  which  it  moves  in 
30,686  mean  solar  days,  or  about  eighty-four  years.  It  is  the 
slowest  moving  planet  in  the  system,  and  yet  it  pursues  its  course 
at  the  rate  of  15,000  miles  every  hour.  Were  a steam-carriage 
to  move  round  the  immense  orbit  of  this  planet  at  the  rate  above 
stated,  it  would  require  no  less  than  sixty-four  thousand,  five 
hundred,  and  seventy  years  before  this  ample  circuit  could  be 
completed;  and  yet,  a globe  eighty  times  larger  than  the  earth 
finishes  this  vast  tour  in  eighty-four  years!  This  planet,  doubt- 
less, revolves  round  its  axis,  as  the  other  planets  do,  but  the 
period  of  its  rotation  is,  as  yet,  unknown.  Its  great  distance 


192  MAGNITUDE  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF  URANUS. 


from  the  earth  prevents  us  from  observing  any  spots  or  changes 
on  its  surface,  by  which  its  rotation  might  be  determined.  La 
Place  concludes,  from  physical  considerations,  that  it  revolves 
about  an  axis  very  little  inclined  to  the  ecliptic;  and  that  the 
time  of  its  diurnal  rotation  cannot  be  much  less  than  that  o* 
Jupiter  or  Saturn. 

Magnitude  and  Dimensions  of  Uranus. — This  planet  is  about 
35,000  miles  in  diameter,  and  110,000  miles  in  circumference, 
being  eighty-one  times  larger  than  the  earth,  and  four  thousand 
times  larger  than  the  moon.  Its  surface  contains  3,848,460,000 
of  square  miles,  which  is  nineteen  times  the  area  of  our  globe, 
and  seventy-eight  times  the  area  of  all  the  habitable  portions  of 
the  earth.  At  the  rate  of  population  formerly  stated,  280  to  a 
square  mile,  it  could,  therefore,  accommodate  1,077,568,800,000, 
or  more  than  one  billion  of  inhabitants,  which  is  one  thousand 
three  hundred  and  forty-seven  times  the  population  of  our  globe. 
So  that  this  planet,  which  escaped  the  notice  of  astronomers  for 
more  than  five  thousand  years,  forms  a very  considerable  portion 
of  the  solar  system,  and  of  the  scene  of  the  Divine  government. 

Proportion  of  Light  on  Uranus . — As  this  planet  is  19  times 
farther  from  the  sun  than  the  earth  is,  and  as  the  square  of  19 
is  361,  the  intensity  of  light  on  its  surface  will  be  three  hundred 
and  sixty  times  less  than  what  we  enjoy.  Yet  this  quantity  of 
light  is  equal  to  what  we  should  have  from  the  combined  efful- 
gence of  348  full  moons ;*  and,  with  a slight  modification  of  our 
visual  organs,  such  a proportion  of  light  would  be  quite  sufficient 
for  all  the  purposes  of  vision.  Though  the  light  of  the  sun  flies 
eighteen  hundred  millions  of  miles  before  it  reach  this  planet, 
and  returns  again,  by  reflection,  nearly  the  same  distance  before 
it  reach  the  earth,  yet  it  is  distinctly  visible  through  our  tele- 
scopes, and  sometimes  even  to  the  naked  eye;  and  Uranus,  with 
a moderate  magnifying  power,  appears  about  as  bright  as  Saturn. 
How  small  a quantity  of  solar  light  may  suffice  for  the  purpose 
of  vision  will  be  obvious  by  attending  to  the  following  circum- 
stance:— In  the  late  solar  eclipse,  which  happened  on  the  15th 

* It  is  found  by  calculation,  that  it  would  require  about  90,000  full  moons 
to  fill  the  sky ; and  on  this  ground  it  is  stated,  that  the  light  of  Uranus  is  equal 
to  348  full  moons.  But,  if  the  light  of  the  full  moon  be  300,000  times  weaker 
than  that  of  the  meridian  sun,  as  some  have  deduced  from  certain  photometrical 
experiments,  the  quantity  of  light  thrown  on  Uranus  by  the  sun  will  be  equal 
to  more  than  a thousand  full  moons.  The  same  observation  will  apply  to  what 
has  been  stated  respecting  the  quantity  of  light  enjoyed  by  the  planet  Saturn. 


PROPORTION  OF  LIGHT  ON  URANUS.  193 

of  May,  1836,  little  more  than  the  one-twelfth  part  of  the  sun 
was  visible  at  those  places  where  the  eclipse  was  annular.  Al- 
most every  person  imagined  that  a dismal  gloom  and  darkness 
would  ensue,  yet  the  diminution  of  light  appeared  no  greater 
than  what  frequently  happens  in  a cloudy  day.  At  the  time  of 
the  greatest  obscuration,  there  was  little  more  than  double  the 
light  which  falls  upon  Uranus,  and  all  the  objects  of  the  sur 
rounding  landscape,  though  somewhat  deficient  in  brilliancy, 
were  distinctly  perceived.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
organs  of  vision  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  planets,  being 
formed  by  Divine  Wisdom,  are  exactly  adapted  to  the  objects 
amidst  which  they  are  placed,  and  the  quantity  of  light  reflected 
from  them;  and  there  may  be  innumerable  modes,  unknown  to 
us,  by  which  this  end  may  be  effected.  We  can  easily  conceive, 
that  if  the  pupils  of  our  eyes  were  rendered  capable  of  a greater 
degree  of  expansion  than  they  now  possess,  or  were  the  retina , 
on  which  the  images  of  objects  are  depicted,  endowed  with  a 
greater  degree  of  nervous  sensibility,  so  as  to  be  more  easily 
affected  by  the  impulses  of  light,  we  might  perceive  as  much 
splendour  on  all  the  objects  connected  with  Uranus,  were  we 
placed  on  that  planet,  as  we  now  do  on  the  scenery  around  us, 
during  the  brightest  days  of  summer.  When  we  pass  from  the 
light  of  the  sun  into  a darksome  apartment,  on  our  first  entrance 
we  can  scarcely  distinguish  any  object  with  distinctness;  but, 
after  remaining  five  or  six  minutes,  till  the  pupil  has  time  to 
expand,  every  object  around  us  is  readily  perceived;  and  from 
the  same  cause,  nocturnal  animals  can  pursue  their  course  with 
ease  and  certainty  amidst  the  deepest  shades  of  night.  So  that 
the  inhabitants  of  the  most  distant  planet  of  our  system,  although 
it  were  removed  from  the  sun  to  double  the  distance  of  Uranus, 
might  perceive  objects  with  all  the  distinctness  requisite  for  the 
purposes  of  vision.  And  if  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  of  such  beings 
be  much  more  expansive  than  ours,  (as  is  probably  the  case,)  it  is 
highly  probable  they  will  be  enabled  to  penetrate  much  further  into 
the  celestial  regions,  and  to  perceive  the  objects  in  the  firmament 
with  much  greater  distinctness  and  “ space-penetrating  power,” 
than  we  can  do,  even  with  the  aid  of  instruments.  It  is  likewise 
probable,  that  the  objects  on  the  surface  of  the  more  distant 
planets  of  our  system  are  fitted  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light  with 
peculiar  brilliancy.  Hence  we  find  that  the  light  of  Uranus, 
though  descending  upon  us  from  a region  900  millions  of  miles 
further  distant  than  Saturn,  appears  as  vivid  as  the  light  which  is 

o 


194 


TEMPERATURE 


reflected  to  us  from  that  planet.  The  apparent  diameter  of  the 
sun,  as  seen  from  Uranus,  is  only  1 minute,  38  seconds;  whereas 
his  mean  apparent  diameter  as  seen  from  the  earth  is  32  minutes, 
3 seconds.  Consequently,  the  size  of  this  orb,  as  viewed  from 
this  planet,  will  appear  very  little  larger  than  Venus  appears  to 
us  in  her  greatest  brilliancy,  or  Jupiter  when  near  his  opposi- 
tion. The  following  figure  represents  to  the  eye  the  apparent 
size  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  Uranus  and  from  the  earth — the 
small  circle  representing  his  size  as  seen  from  Uranus: — 


Fig.  66. 


Temperature  of  Uranus. — If  heat  followed  the  same  law  as 
the  propagation  of  light,  and  decreased  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  planet  from  the  sun  increased,  then  the  surface  of 
the  planet  Uranus  would  be  a cold  region  indeed,  in  which  no 
life  or  animation,  such  as  we  see  around  us,  could  exist.  Baron 
Fourier,  in  his  “ Memoir  of  Herschel,”  says,  “ Its  temperature  is 
more  than  forty  degrees  below  that  of  ice;”  and,  if  the  degrees 
of  Reaumur’s  thermometer  be  meant,  this  temperature  will  cor- 
respond to  122  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  of  Fahrenheit — 
a cold-enough  region,  truly.  In  accordance  with  such  repre- 
sentations, the  poets  of  the  last  century  expatiated  on  the  cold 
temperature  of  Saturn  in  such  strains  as  the  following: — 


OF  URANUS. 


195 


“ When  the  keen  north  with  all  its  fury  blows. 

Congeals  the  floods,  and  forms  the  fleecy  snows, 

’Tis  heat  intense  to  what  can  there  be  known ; 

Warmer  our  poles  than  is  its  burning  zone. 

Who  there  inhabit  must  have  other  powers, 

Juices,  and  veins,  and  sense,  and  life,  than  ours. 

One  moment’s  cold,  like  theirs,  would  pierce  the  bone, 

Freeze  the  heart’s  blood,  and  turn  us  all  to  stone.” 

Baker's  Universe, 

This,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  a very  cold  poetic  strain,  almost 
sufficient  to  make  one  shiver,  and  to  freeze  our  very  thoughts; 
and  if  such  a description  were  applicable  to  Saturn,  it  is  much 
more  so  to  the  planet  Uranus,  at  double  the  distance.  But  I 
presume  it  is  more  in  accordance  with  poetic  licence  than  with 
the  deductions  of  sound  philosophy.  We  have  no  valid  reason 
to  conclude  that  the  degree  of  heat  on  the  surfaces  of  the  different 
planets  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  respective 
distances  from  the  sun.  The  sun  is  to  be  considered  chiefly  as 
the  great  storehouse  of  light , and  it  may  likewise  be  viewed  as 
the  great  agent  in  the  production  of  heat,  without  supposing  it 
to  be  an  enormous  mass  of  fire,  which  the  common  opinion  seems 
to  take  for  granted.  Its  rays  produce  heat  chiefly  by  exciting 
an  insensible  action  between  caloric  and  the  particles  of  matter 
contained  in  bodies;  and  caloric  appears  to  be  a substance 
universally  diffused  throughout  nature.  If  the  degree  of  heat 
were  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from  the  sun,  why  should  the 
upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  be  so  intensely  cold?  Why 
should  the  tops  of  lofty  mountains  be  crowned  with  perpetual 
snows,  while  the  plains  below  are  scorched  with  heat?  Why 
should  an  intense  cold  be  felt  in  the  latitude  of  40°,  when  a com- 
parative mildness  is  experienced  in  the  latitude  of  56°  ? In  the 
state  of  Connecticut,  North  America,  in  January,  1835,  the 
thermometer  ranged  from  minus  25°  to  27°  of  Fahrenheit;  while 
in  Scotland,  during  the  same  period,  it  was  seldom  so  low  as  the 
freezing  point.  But  as  I have  already  thrown  out  some  remarks 
on  this  subject,  when  describing  the  planet  Mercury,  I need  not 
enlarge  (see  p.  56.)  In  order  to  form  correct  ideas  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  heat  among  the  planetary  bodies,  we  have  only  to 
suppose  that  the  Creator  has  proportioned  the  quantity  of  caloric 
(or  that  which  produces  sensible  heat)  to  the  distance  at  which 
every  planet  is  placed  from  the  sun,  so  that  a large  quantity 
exists  in  Saturn,  and  a smaller  quantity  in  Mercury.  If,  there- 
fore, the  quantity  of  caloric  connected  with  Uranus  be  in  pro- 

o 2 


196 


PLANETARY  SYSTEM 


portion  to  its  distance  from  the  sun,  there  may  be  as  much 
warmth  experienced  in  that  distant  region  of  the  solar  system 
as  in  the  mildest  parts  of  our  temperate  zones.  So  that  we  are 
under  no  necessity  of  associating  the  frigid  and  gloomy  ideas  of 
the  poet  with  our  contemplations  of  this  expansive  globe.  At  all 
events,  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  Creator,  whose  wisdom  is 
infinite  in  its  resources,  and  whose  “ tender  mercies  are  over  all 
his  works,”  has  adapted  the  structure  and  constitution  of  the 
inhabitants  of  every  planet  to  the  nature  and  circumstances  of 
the  habitation  provided  for  them,  so  as  to  render  every  portion 
of  his  dominions  a comfortable  abode  for  his  intelligent  offspring; 
provided  they  do  not  frustrate  his  benevolent  designs  (as  has 
been  done  in  our  world)  by  their  rebellion  and  immoral  conduct. 
For  in  no  region  of  the  universe,  whatever  may  be  its  physical 
arrangements,  can  true  happiness  be  enjoyed,  unless  love  to  God, 
and  love  to  all  surrounding  intelligences,  form  the  grand  prin- 
ciples of  action,  and  be  uniformly  displayed  in  every  intercourse 
and  association,  and  amidst  all  the  ramifications  of  moral  con- 
duct. On  this  basis,  chiefly,  rests  the  happiness  of  the  intelli- 
gent uni  verse ; and  wherever  principles  directly  opposite  to  these 
prevail  among  any  order  of  intellectual  beings,  whatever  may  be 
the  structure  or  scenery  of  their  habitation,  misery  and  moral 
disorder  must  be  the  inevitable  consequence. 

The  following  additional  particulars  may  be  stated  in  relation 
to  this  planet: — Its  density  is  reckoned  to  be  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  water.  A body  weighing  one  pound  on  the  earth’s  surface 
would  weigh  only  fourteen  ounces,  fourteen  drachms,  if  removed 
to  Uranus.  The  eccentricity  of  its  orbit  is  85  millions  of  miles, 
which  is  about  the  ^ Part  °f  diameter.  Its  mean  apparent 
diameter , as  seen  from  the  earth,  is  about  4 seconds.  The  incli- 
nation of  its  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  46  minutes,  26  seconds,  so 
that  it  is  never  much  more  than  three-fourths  of  a degree  from 
the  ecliptic.  This  inclination  is  less  than  that  of  any  of  the  other 
planetary  orbits.  Six  satellites  are  supposed  to  be  connected 
with  Uranus,  but  their  periods  and  other  phenomena  have  not 
yet  been  accurately  ascertained. 


In  the  preceding  pages  I have  given  a brief  sketch  of  the 
principal  phenomena  connected  with  the  primary  planets  of  our 
system.  Whether  any  other  planets  besides  those  specified  belong 


NOT  YET  THOROUGHLY  EXPLORED. 


197 


to  this  system,  is,  at  present,  unknown.  We  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  the  boundaries  of  the  planetary  system  are  circum- 
scribed within  the  range  of  our  discoveries,  or  the  limits  of  our 
vision.  Within  the  space  of  little  more  than  half  a century,  the 
limits  of  this  system  have  been  expanded  to  our  view  to  double 
the  lineal  extent  which  they  were  formerly  supposed  to  compre- 
hend. Instead  of  an  area  of  only  25,400,000,000  of  square  miles, 
it  is  now  found  to  comprise  an  extent  of  101,700,000,000  of 
square  miles,  which  is  four  times  the  dimensions  formerly 
assigned  to  it.  There  would  be  no  improbability  in  conceiving 
it  extended  to  at  least  triple  these  dimensions.  Within  the  space 
of  twenty-six  years,  from  1781  to  1807,  no  fewer  than  five 
primary  planets,  and  eight  secondaries,  were  discovered,  besides 
a far  greater  number  of  comets  than  had  ever  before  been  de- 
tected within  a similar  lapse  of  years;  and  therefore  it  would  be 
obviously  rash  and  premature  to  conclude  that  we  have  now  dis- 
covered all  the  moving  bodies  of  our  system.  Far  beyond  the 
limits  of  even  Uranus,  other  planets  yet  unknown  may  be  per- 
forming their  moi'e  ample  circuits  around  the  sun ; for  we  know, 
from  the  case  of  comets,  that  even  throughout  those  distant  re- 
gions his  attractive  power  and  influence  extend.  In  the  immense 
interval  of  900  millions  of  miles  between  the  orbits  of  Saturn 
and  Uranus,  one,  if  not  two,  planets  may  possibly  exist,  though 
they  have  hitherto  eluded  the  observation  of  astronomers.  In 
order  to  detect  such  bodies,  if  any  exist,  it  would  be  requisite  to 
survey,  more  minutely  than  has  yet  been  done,  a zone  of  the 
heavens  extending  at  least  twenty  degrees  on  each  side  of  the 
ecliptic,  marking  exactly  the  minutest  objects  in  every  part  of  it 
which  the  most  powerful  telescopes  can  enable  us  to  descry. 
After  which,  a second  survey  should  be  made,  to  ascertain  if 
any  of  the  bodies  formerly  observed  be  found  amissing,  or  have 
shifted  their  position.  It  might  likewise  be  expedient  to  com- 
pare with  new  observations  the  stars  marked  in  all  the  celestial 
atlases  that  have  hitherto  been  published,  and  to  note  particu- 
larly those  which  are  wanting  in  the  positions  where  they  were 
formerly  marked,  and  those  that  have  appeared  in  certain  places 
where  they  were  formerly  unobserved.  If  a taste  for  celestial 
investigations  were  more  common  among  mankind,  and  were  the 
number  of  observers  indefinitely  increased,  there  would  be  no 
great  difficulty  in  accomplishing  such  an  object;  for  certain  small 
portions  of  the  heavens  might  be  allotted  to  different  classes  of 
observers,  who  might  proceed  simultaneously  in  their  researches, 


198  PLANETS  WITHIN  THE  ORBIT  OF  MERCURY. 

and  in  a comparatively  short  period  the  whole  survey  might  be 
completed. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  a planet  may  exist  within  the  space 
of  37  millions  of  miles  which  intervenes  between  the  orbit  of 
Mercury  and  the  sun.  But  such  a body  could  never  be  detected 
in  the  evening  after  sunset,  as  its  greatest  elongation  from  the  sun 
could  not  be  supposed  to  be  more  than  ten  or  twelve  degrees,  and, 
consequently,  it  would  descend  below  the  horizon  in  about  half  an 
hour  after  sunset,  and  before  twilight  had  disappeared.  The 
only  chance  of  detecting  such  a planet  would  be  when  it  happened 
to  transit  the  sun’s  disk;  but  as  this  would  happen  only  at  distant 
intervals,  and  as  it  might  make  the  transit  in  cloudy  weather, 
or  when  the  sun  is  absent  from  our  hemisphere,  there  is  little 
prospect  of  our  discovering  such  a body  in  this  way.  It  might 
be  of  some  importance,  however,  that  those  who  make  frequent 
observations  on  the  sun  should  direct  their  attention  to  this 
circumstance;  as  there  have  been  some  instances  in  which  dark 
bodies  have  been  observed  to  move  across  the  sun’s  disk  in  the 
space  of  five  or  six  hours,  when  no  other  spots  were  visible.  An 
opaque  body  of  this  description  was  seen  by  Mr.  Lloft,  and  others, 
on  the  6th  of  January,  1818,  which  moved  with  greater  rapidity 
across  the  solar  disk  than  Venus  in  her  transit  in  1769.  It  is 
possible  that  a planet  within  the  orbit  of  Mercury  might  be 
detected  in  the  day-time,  were  powerful  telescopes  applied  to  a 
space  of  the  heavens  about  ten  or  twelve  degrees  around  the  sun. 
Small  stars  have  been  seen  even  at  noon-day  with  powerful 
instruments,  and,  consequently,  a planet  even  smaller  than 
Mercury  might  be  perceived  in  the  day-time.  In  this  case  a 
round  opaque  body  would  require  to  be  placed  at  a considerable 
distance  from  the  observer,  so  as  completely  to  intercept  the 
body  of  the  sun,  and  about  a degree  of  the  heavens  all  around 
him;  and  every  portion  of  the  surrounding  space,  extending  to 
at  least  twelve  degrees  in  every  direction,  should  then  be  carefully 
and  frequently  examined.  Such  observations,  if  persevered  in, 
would  undoubtedly  afford  a chance  of  detecting  any  revolving 
body  that  might  exist  within  such  a limit.  But  I may  after- 
wards have  an  opportunity  of  describing  more  particularly 
the  observations,  and  the  mode  of  conducting  them,  to  which 
I allude.* 


* For  some  illustrations  of  the  above  views,  see  Appendix* 


THE  SUN* 


199 


X.  THE  SUN. 

Having  taken  a cursory  survey  of  the  most  prominent  par- 
ticulars connected  with  the  primary  planets,  I shall  now  proceed 
to  a brief  description  of  the  sun , that  magnificent  luminary  on 
which  they  all  depend,  from  which  they  derive  light  and  heat, 
and  vivifying  influence,  and  by  whose  attractive  energy  they  are 
directed  in  their  motions  and  retained  in  their  orbits.  Before 
proceeding  to  a description  of  the  particular  phenomena  connected 
with  the  sun,  it  may  be  expedient  briefly  to  describe  some  of  its 
apparent  motions. 

Apparent  Motions  of  the  Sun. — The  most  obvious  apparent 
motion  of  the  sun,  which  is  known  to  every  one,  is,  that  he  ap- 
pears to  rise  in  the  morning  in  an  easterly  direction,  to  traverse 
a certain  portion  of*  the  sky,  and  then  to  disappear  in  the  evening 
in  a direction  towards  the  west.  Were  we  to  commence  our 
observations  on  the  21st  of  December,  in  the  latitude  of  t52° 
north,  which  nearly  corresponds  to  that  of  London,  we  should 
see  the  sun  rising  near  the  south-east  point  of  the  horizon,  as  at 
S E , fig.  67,  describing  a comparatively  small  curve  above  the 
horizon,  from  S E to  S fV9  in  the  southern  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
and  setting  at  /S'  IV,  near  the  south-west.  At  this  season,  the 
sun  remains  only  between  seven  and  eight  hours  above  the 
horizon;  and  when  he  arrives  at  S,  at  midday,  which  is  the 
highest  point  of  his  elevation,  he  is  only  about  fourteen  degrees 
above  the  horizon,  which  may  be  represented  by  the  line  S B, 
After  disappearing  in  our  horizon,  in  the  evening,  he  describes 
the  large  curve  from  S W to  IV,  N,  and  E,  till  he  again  arrive 
in  the  morning  near  the  point  S E.  All  this  curve  is  described 
below  our  horizon,  and  therefore  the  nights  at  this  season  are 
much  longer  than  the  days.  After  this  period,  the  sun  rises 
every  day  at  points  a little  further  to  the  north,  between  & E 
and  E,  and  sets  in  corresponding  points  in  the  west,  between 
5 W and  W , till  the  21st  of  March,  when  he  rises  at  the  point 
E,  due  east,  and  sets  due  west  at  the  point  W.  At  this  time, 
he  moves  through  the  semicircle  E,  S , W,  and  at  noon  he  rises 
to  the  elevation  of  thirty-eight  degrees  above  the  southern 
horizon,  which  may  be  represented  by  the  line  & C.  This  is 
the  period  of  the  vernal  equinox,  when  there  is  equal  day  and 
night  throughout  every  part  of  the  earth,  the  sun  being  twelve 
hours  above,  and  twelve  hours  below  the  horizon.  After  this 
period,  the  sun  rises  to  the  north  of  the  easterly  point,  and  sets 


200 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  THE  SUN 


Fig.  67. 


gj?  / 5 



7vtt^\ 4 — 

iv  Cj  X 

JS 


to  the  north  of  the  westerly,  and  the  length  of  the  day  rapidly 
advances  till  the  21st  of  June,  when  he  rises  near  the  north- 
east point,  JV  E , and  sets  near  the  north-west  point,  JV  W,  de- 
scribing the  large  curve  from  JV  E to  E,  S,  TV,  and  JV  TV. 
This  period  of  the  year  is  called  the  summer  solstice , when  the 
days  are  longest,  at  which  time  the  sun  rises  at  noon  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  61 1 degrees  above  the  horizon,  which  may  be  represented 
by  the  line  S D , and  he  continues  above  the  horizon  for  nearly 
seventeen  hours.  The  length  of  the  nights  at  this  time  is 
exactly  the  same  as  the  length  of  the  days  on  the  21st  of  De- 
cember. The  sun’s  nocturnal  arch,  or  the  curve  he  describes 
below  the  horizon,  is  that  which  is  represented  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  figure,  from  JV  TV  to  JV  E.  In  more  southern  latitudes 
than  fifty-two  degrees,  the  sun  rises  to  a higher  elevation  at  noon; 
and  in  higher  latitudes,  his  meridian  altitude  is  less  than  what  is 
stated  above.  From  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  the  days 
gradually  shorten;  the  sun  rises  in  a more  southerly  direction 
till  the  23rd  of  September,  which  is  called  the  autumnal  equinox , 


IN  SOUTHERN  CLIMES. 


201 


when  he  again  rises  in  the  eastern  point  of  the  compass,  and 
every  succeeding  day  at  a point  still  further  to  the  south,  till,  on 
the  21st  of  December,  or  the  winter  solstice , he  is  again  seen  to 
rise  near  the  south-east,  and  afterward  to  pass  through  all  the 
apparent  variations  of  motion  above  described. 

Were  we  residing  in  southern  latitudes,  such  as  those  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or  Van  Dieman’s  Land, 
the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun  would  appear  somewhat  different. 
Instead  of  beholding  the  sun  moving  along  the  southern  part  of  the 
sky,  from  the  left  hand  to  the  right,  we  should  see  him  directing 
his  course  along  the  northern  part  of  the  heavens,  from  the  right 
hand  to  the  left.  In  other  respects  his  apparent  motions  would 
nearly  correspond  with  those  above  described.  Were  we  placed 
in  countries  under  the  equator  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  the 
sun,  at  midday,  would  shine  directly  from  the  zenith,  at  which 
time  objects  would  have  no  shadows.  At  all  other  times,  the 
sun  is  either  in  the  northern  or  the  southern  quarter  of  the 
heavens.  During  the  one  half  of  the  year  he  shines  from  the 
north,  and  the  shadows  of  objects  fall  to  the  south;  during 
the  other  half,  he  shines  from  the  south,  and  the  shadows  of  all 
objects  are  projected  towards  the  north.  This  is  a circumstance 
which  can  never  occur  in  our  climate,  or  in  any  part  of  the  tem- 
perate zones.  At  the  equator,  too,  the  days  and  nights  are  of 
the  same  length,  twelve  hours  each,  throughout  the  whole  year. 
Were  we  placed  at  the  poles,  the  motion  of  the  sun  would  pre- 
sent a different  aspect  from  any  of  those  we  have  described.  At 
the  north  pole,  on  the  21st  of  March,  we  should  see  a portion  of 
the  sun’s  disk  appearing  in  the  horizon,  after  a long  night  of  six 
months.  This  portion  of  the  sun  would  appear  to  move  quite 
round  the  horizon  every  twenty-four  hours;  it  would  gradually 
rise  higher  and  higher  till  the  whole  body  of  the  sun  made  its 
appearance.  As  the  season  advanced,  the  sun  would  appear  to 
rise  higher  and  higher,  till  he  attained  the  altitude  of  23^  degrees 
above  the  horizon,  which  would  take  place  on  the  21st  of  June; 
after  which,  his  altitude  would  gradually  decline  till  the  23rd  of 
September,  when  he  would  again  appear  in  the  horizon.  During 
the  whole  of  this  period  of  six  months,  there  is  perpetual  day,  the 
stars  are  never  seen,  and  the  sun  appears  to  go  quite  round  the 
heavens  every  twenty-four  hours  without  setting,  in  circles  nearly 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  After  the  23rd  of  September,  the  sun  dis- 
appears, and  a night  of  six  months  succeeds,  which  is  occasionally 
enlivened  by  the  moon,  the  stars,  and  the  coruscations  of  the 


202 


ASPECTS  OF  THE  SUN. 


aurora  borealis , during  which  period  the  south  pole  enjoys  all 
the  splendour  of  an  uninterrupted  day.  In  all  places  within  the 
polar  circles  the  length  of  the  longest  day  varies  from  twenty- 
four  hours  to  six  months.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Lapland, 
for  example,  the  longest  day  is  about  six  weeks;  during  this 
time,  the  sun  appears  to  move  round  the  heavens  without  setting; 
but  at  noon,  when  he  comes  to  the  meridian,  he  is  about  40  degrees 
above  the  southern  horizon,  and  twelve  hours  afterwards  he  ap- 
pears elevated  about  six  degrees  above  the  northern  horizon,  from 
which  point  he  again  ascends  till  he  arrive  at  the  southern 
meridian. 

Such  are  the  apparent  diurnal  motions  and  general  aspects  of 
the  sun  in  different  parts  of  the  earth,  which  are  owing  partly  to 
the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  partly  to  the  different  positions  in  which  a spectator  is  placed 
in  different  zones  of  the  globe.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark, 
that  these  motions  of  the  sun  are  not  real , but  only  apparent . 
While  presenting  all  these  varieties  of  motion,  he  is  still  a 
quiescent  body  in  the  centre  of  the  planetary  system.  By  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  round  its  axis,  from  west  to  east,  every 
twenty-four  hours,  all  these  apparent  motions  of  the  sun  are  pro- 
duced. This  we  have  already  endeavoured  to  prove  in  chap,  i., 
pp.  20—24. 

Besides  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  now  described,  there  is 
another  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  in  a contrary  direction,  which 
is  not  so  much  observed,  and  that  is,  his  apparent  motion  from 
west  to  east  through  the  whole  circle  of  the  heavens,  which  he 
accomplishes  in  the  course  of  a year.  This  motion  manifests 
itself  by  the  appearance  of  the  heavens  during  the  night.  The 
stars  which  lie  near  the  path  of  the  sun,  and  which  set  a little 
time  after  him,  are  soon  lost  in  his  light,  and  after  a short  time 
re-appear  in  the  east,  a little  before  his  rising.  This  proves  that 
the  sun  advances  towards  them  in  a direction  contrary  to  his 
diurnal  motion;  and  hence  we  behold  a different  set  of  stars  in 
our  nocturnal  sky  in  summer  and  in  winter.  This  apparent  re- 
volution of  the  sun  is  produced  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth 
round  the  sun,  of  which  I have  already  given  an  explanation, 
(chap,  i.,  pages  24,  25,)  along  with  certain  demonstrative  proofs 
that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the  planetary  system,  (see  also 
chap,  ii.,  pages  38 — 49.) 

Distance  and  Magnitude  of  the  Sun. — -To  find  the  exact  dis- 
tance of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  an  object  which  has  much  in- 


DISTANCE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  SUN.  208 

terested  and  engaged  astronomers  for  a century  past.  The  angle 
of  parallax  being  so  small  as  about  8^  seconds,  rendered  it  for 
some  time  difficult  to  arrive  at  an  accurate  determination  on  this 
point,  till  the  transits  of  Venus  in  1761  and  1769.  From  the 
calculations  founded  upon  the  observations  made  on  these 
transits  it  has  been  deduced,  that  the  distance  of  the  sun  is 
about  95,000,000  of  miles.  This  distance  is  considered  by 
La  Place,  and  other  astronomers,  to  be  within  the  ^ part  of  the 
true  distance,  so  that  it  cannot  be  much  below  94  millions  on 
the  one  hand,  nor  much  above  96  millions  on  the  other.  Small 
as  this  interval  may  appear  when  compared  with  the  vast  dis- 
tances of  some  of  the  other  celestial  bodies,  it  is,  in  reality,  a 
most  amazing  distance  when  compared  with  the  spaces  which 
intervene  between  terrestrial  objects — a distance  which  the  mind 
cannot  appreciate  without  a laborious  effort.  It  is  thirty-one 
thousand  six  hundred  times  the  space  that  intervenes  between 
Britain  and  America;  and  were  a carriage  to  move  along  this 
space  at  the  rate  of  480  miles  every  day,  it  would  require  542 
years  before  the  journey  could  be  accomplished. 

The  magnitude  of  this  vast  luminary  is  an  object  which 
overpowers  the  imagination.  Its  diameter  is  880,000  miles; 
its  circumference,  2,764,600  miles;  its  surface  contains 

2.432.800.000. 000  of  square  miles,  which  is  twelve  thousand 
three  hundred  and  fifty  times  the  area  of  the  terraqueous 
globe,  and  nearly  fifty  thousand  times  the  extent  of  all  the 
habitable  parts  of  the  earth.  Its  solid  contents  comprehend 

356.818.739.200.000. 000,*  or  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty- 
six  thousand  billions  of  cubical  miles.  Were  its  centre  placed  over 
the  earth,  it  would  fill  the  whole  orbit  of  the  moon,  and  reach 
200,000  miles  beyond  it  on  every  hand.  Were  a person  to  travel 
along  the  surface  of  the  sun,  so  as  to  pass  along  every  square 
mile  on  its  surface,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  every  day,  it  would 
require  more  than  two  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  years 
before  the  survey  of  this  vast  globe  could  be  completed.  It 
would  contain  within  its  circumference  more  than  thirteen  hun- 
dred thousand  globes  as  large  as  the  earth,  and  a thousand  globes 
of  the  size  of  Jupiter,  which  is  the  largest  planet  of  the  system. 
It  is  more  than  five  hundred  times  larger  than  all  the  planets, 


* In  some  editions  of  the  “ Christian  Philosopher,”  under  the  Article 
Astronomy , this  number  is  inaccurately  stated ; and  the  number  which  follows, 
two  thousand  millio?is,  should  be  two  hundred  millions. 


204 


IMMENSE  SIZE  OF  THE  SUN. 


satellites,  and  comets  belonging  to  our  system,  vast  and  extensive 
as  some  of  them  are.  Although  its  density  is  little  more  than 
that  of  water,  it  would  weigh  3360  planets  such  as  Saturn,  1067 
planets  such  as  Jupiter,  329,000  globes  such  as  the  earth,  and 
more  than  two  millions  of  globes  such  as  Mercury,  although  its 
density  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  lead.  Were  we  to  conceive  of  its 
surface  being  peopled  with  inhabitants,  at  the  rate  formerly  stated, 
it  would  contain  681,184,000,000,000,  or  more  than  six  hundred 
and  eighty  billions,  which  would  be  equal  to  the  inhabitants  of 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  worlds  such  as  ours. 

Of  a globe  so  vast  in  its  dimensions,  the  human  mind,  with 
all  its  efforts,  can  form  no  adequate  conception.  If  it  is  impos- 
sible for  the  mind  to  take  in  the  whole  range  of  the  terraqueous 
globe,  and  to  form  a comprehensive  idea  of  its  amplitude  and  its 
innumerable  objects,  how  can  we  ever  form  a conception,  ap- 
proaching to  the  reality,  of  a body  one  million  three  hundred 
thousand  times  greater?  We  may  express  its  dimensions  in 
figures  or  in  words,  but  in  the  present  state  of  our  limited  powers 
we  can  form  no  mental  image  or  representation  of  an  object  so 
stupendous  and  sublime.  Chained  down  to  our  terrestrial  mansion, 
we  are  deprived  of  a sufficient  range  of  prospect,  so  as  to  form  a 
substratum  to  our  thoughts,  when  we  attempt  to  form  conceptions 
of  such  amazing  magnitudes.  The  imagination  is  overpowered 
and  bewildered  in  its  boldest  efforts,  and  drops  its  wing  before 
it  has  realized  the  ten  thousandth  part  of  the  idea  which  it 
attempted  to  grasp.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  largest  ideas 
we  have  yet  acquired,  or  can  represent  to  our  minds,  of  the 
inmensity  of  the  universe,  are  inferior  to  a full  and  comprehensive 
idea  of  the  vast  globe  of  the  sun,  in  all  its  connexions  and  dimen- 
sions ; and  therefore  not  only  must  the  powers  of  the  human  mind 
be  invigorated  and  expanded,  but  also  the  limits  of  our  intel- 
lectual and  corporeal  vision  must  be  indefinitely  extended,  before 
we  can  grasp  the  objects  of  overpowering  grandeur  which  exist 
within  the  range  of  creation,  and  take  a comprehensive  view  of 
the  great  Creator’s  empire.  And  as  such  endowments  cannot  be 
attained  in  the  present  state,  this  very  circumstance  forms  a 
presumptive  argument  that  man  is  destined  to  an  immortal  ex- 
istence, where  his  faculties  will  be  enlarged  and  the  boundaries 
of  his  vision  extended,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  take  an  enlightened 
and  expansive  view  of  the  wonders  of  the  universe,  and  the  range 
of  the  Divine  government.  In  the  meantime,  however,  it  may 
be  useful  to  allow  our  thoughts  to  expatiate  on  such  objects,  and 


ROTATION  OF  THE  SUN. 


205 


to  endeavour  to  form  as  comprehensive  an  idea  as  possible  of  such 
a stupendous  luminary  as  the  sun,  in  order  to  assist  us  in  forming 
conceptions  of  objects  still  more  grand  and  magnificent;  for  the 
sun  which  enlightens  our  day  is  but  one  out  of  countless  millions 
of  similar  globes,  dispersed  throughout  creation,  some  of  which 
may  far  excel  it  in  magnitude  and  glory. 

Rotation  of  the  sun . — This  luminary,  although  it  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  system,  in  the  enjoyment  of  perpetual  day,  and 
stands  in  no  need  of  light  from  any  other  orb,  yet  is  found  to 
have  a rotation  round  its  axis.  This  circumstance  seems  to 
indicate  that  motion  is  essential  to  all  the  bodies  of  the  universe, 
whether  revolving  in  orbits  around  another  body,  or  acting  as  the 
centres  of  light  and  attractive  influence.  And  from  what  we 
know  of  the  more  distant  bodies  in  the  heavens,  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  there  is  none  of  them  in  a state  of  absolute  qui- 
escence, but  that  they  are  all  in  incessant  motion,  either  round 
their  axes  or  around  a distant  centre.  The  rotation  of  the  sun 
was  discovered  by  the  motion  of  certain  dark  spots  across  its  disk. 
These  spots  appear  to  enter  the  disk  on  the  east  side,  to  move 
from  thence  with  a velocity  continually  increasing  till  they  arrive 
at  the  middle  of  the  disk;  they  then  move  slower  and  slower  till 
they  go  off  at  the  sun’s  western  limb;  after  which  they  disappear 
for  about  the  same  space  of  time  they  occupied  in  crossing  the 
disk,  and  then  enter  again  on  the  eastern  limb,  and  move  onward 
in  the  same  track  as  before,  unless  they  suffer  a change,  as 
frequently  happens,  after  they  disappear  from  the  western  limb. 
The  apparent  inequality  in  the  motion  of  the  spots  is  purely 
optical,  and  is  owing  to  the  oblique  view  we  have  of  the  parts  of 
a globe  which  are  near  the  margin;  but  the  motion  is  such  as 
demonstrates  that  the  spots  are  carried  round  with  an  uniform 
and  equable  motion.  From  the  motion  of  these  spots  we  learn — 
1.  That  the  sun  is  a globe,  and  not  a flat  surface;  2.  That  it 
has  a rotation  round  its  own  axis;  and,  3.  That  this  rotation  is 
performed  in  the  same  direction  as  the  rotation  of  the  planets, 
and  their  annual  revolutions — namely,  according  to  the  order 
of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  The  time  which  a spot  takes  in 
moving  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  limb  is  thirteen  days, 
and  nearly  sixteen  hours,  and,  consequently,  the  whole  ap- 
parent revolution  is  twenty-seven  days  and  nearly  eight  hours. 
But  this  is  not  the  true  period  of  the  sun’s  rotation;  for  as  the 
earth  has,  during  this  time,  advanced  in  its  orbit  from  east  to 
west,  and  in  some  measure  followed  the  motion  of  the  spot,  the 


206 


SOLAR  SPOTS. 


real  time  in  which  the  spots  perform  their  revolutions  is  found, 
by  calculation,*  to  be  twenty-five  days,  ten  hours.  Every  part 
of  the  sun’s  equator,  therefore,  moves  at  the  rate  of  4532  miles 
every  hour.  The  axis  of  the  sun,  round  which  this  revolution  is 
performed,  is  inclined  7 degrees  20  minutes  to  the  ecliptic. 

The  Solar  Spots , and  the  Physical  Construction  of  the  Sun . — 
Although  the  sun  is  the  fountain  of  light,  and  is  incessantly 
pouring  a flood  of  radiance  over  surrounding  worlds,  yet  the 
nature  of  this  vast  luminary,  and  the  operations  which  are  going 
on  upon  its  surface  and  adjacent  regions,  are  in  a great  measure 
involved  in  darkness.  Before  stating  any  opinions  on  this  sub- 
ject, it  may  be  proper,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  a brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  on  the  surface 
of  the  sun.  The  first  and  most  striking  phenomenon  is  the  dark 
spots  to  which  we  have  alluded.  These  spots  are  of  all  sizes, 
from  the  ^ part  of  the  sun’s  diameter  to  5^-  part  and  under. 
The  larger  spots  are  uniformly  dark  in  the  centre,  and  surrounded 
with  a kind  of  border,  or  fainter  shade,  called  an  umbra . This 
umbra,  which  sometimes  occupies  a considerable  space  around 
the  dark  nucleus,  is  frequently  of  a shape  nearly  corresponding 
to  that  of  the  black  spot.  Sometimes  two  or  more  dark  spots, 
and  a number  of  small  ones,  are  included  within  the  same 
umbra , and  at  other  times  a number  of  small  spots  in  a train, 
forming  a kind  of  tail,  accompanying  the  larger  ones.  The 
number  of  the  spots  is  very  various;  sometimes  there  are  only 
two  or  three,  sometimes  above  a hundred,  and  sometimes  none 
at  all.  Scheiner , who  was  among  the  first  that  observed  these 
spots,  remarks,  that  “ from  the  year  1611  to  1629  he  never 
found  the  sun  quite  clear  of  spots,  except  a few  days  in  De- 
cember, 1624;  at  other  times  he  was  able  to  count  twenty,  thirty, 
and  even  fifty  spots  upon  the  sun  at  a time.”  Afterwards,  during 
an  interval  of  twenty  years,  from  1650  to  1670,  it  is  said  that 
scarcely  any  were  to  be  seen.  But  since  the  beginning  of  last 
century,  no  year  has  passed,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  which  spots 
have  not  been  seen.  I have  had  an  opportunity  of  viewing  the 
sun  with  good  telescopes,  several  hundreds  of  times,  but  have 
seldom  seen  his  surface  altogether  free  of  spots.  In  some  years, 
however,  they  have  been  far  more  numerous  than  in  others.  In 

* The  following  is  the  proportion  by  which  the  true  rotation  is  found : — 
365d  5 h 48m+27d  7h  37 m ; or,  392 d 13 h 25 m : 365 d 5 h 48m  : : 27 d 7 h 37 m : 
25 d 9h  56m=the  true  time  of  the  sun’s  rotation. 


PHENOMENA  OF  THE  SOLAR  SPOTS. 


207 


the  beginning  of  1835,  comparatively  few  were  seen,  but  during 
the  latter  part  of  it,  the  whole  of  1836,  and  up  to  the  present 
time,  (September,  1837,)  they  have  been  exceedingly  numerous. 
On  the  16th  of  November,  1835,  with  an  achromatic  telescope, 
magnifying  about  a hundred  times,  I perceived  about  ten  different 
clusters;  and  within  the  limits  of  two  of  the  clusters,  sixty  dif- 
ferent spots  were  counted,  and  in  the  whole  of  the  other  clusters, 
above  sixty  more;  making  in  all  about  120  spots,  great  and 
small.  On  the  19th  of  October,  1836,  and  the  21st  of  February, 
1837,  I counted  about  130;  and  on  a late  occasion,  I perceived 
spots  of  all  descriptions,  to  the  amount  of  about  150.  Such  a 
number  of  spots  are  generally  arranged  into  ten  or  twelve  dif- 
ferent clusters,  each  cluster  having  one  or  two  large  spots,  sur- 
rounded with  a number  of  smaller  ones.  Fig.  68  represents  the 
spots  of  the  sun  nearly  as  they  appeared  on  the  19th  of  October, 
1836,  some  of  the  smaller  spots  being  omitted.  The  larger  spots 
are  represented  on  a somewhat  larger  scale  than  they  should  be 
in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle;  but  they  present 
nearly  the  same  relative  aspect  they  exhibited  when  viewed 
through  the  telescope  at  the  time  specified.  Fig.  69  shows  the 
large  spot  on  a larger  scale;  and  fig.  70,  a large  spot  which  ap- 
peared in  a subsequent  observation,  which  had  a bright  streak 
or  two  in  the  centre. 

The  magnitude  of  some  of  the  solar  spots  is  astonishing. 
One  of  the  spots  seen,  November  16th,  1835,  was  found  to  mea- 
sure about  the  fortieth  part  of  the  sun’s  diameter;  and  as  that 
diameter  is  equal  to  880,000  miles,  the  diameter  of  the  spot  must 
have  been  22,000  miles,  which  is  nearly  three  times  the  diameter 
of  the  earth;  and  if  we  suppose  it  only  a fiat  surface,  and  nearly 
circular,  it  contains  380,133,600  square  miles,  which  is  nearly 
double  the  area  of  our  globe.  The  largest  of  the  spots  in  the 
figure,  including  the  penumbra,  measured  about  the  part  of 
the  sun’s  diameter,  and  its  breadth  about  the  part  of  the  same 
diameter;  consequently,  the  length  of  the  spots  and  penumbra 
was  41,900  miles,  its  breadth  16,300,  and  its  area  6,829,700,000 
square  miles,  which  would  afford  room  for  ten  globes  as  large  as 
the  earth  to  be  placed  upon  it.  It  consisted  of  a dark  spot  of  a 
longish  form,  about  12,000  miles  in  length,  and  two  or  three 
smaller  spots,  some  of  them  several  thousand  miles  long,  all  in- 
cluded within  one  penumbra.  The  smallest  spots  we  can  discern 
on  the  solar  disk  cannot  be  much  less  than  five  or  six  hundred 
miles  in  diameter. 


208 


VIEWS  OF  THE  SOLAR  SPOTS. 


Fig.  68. 

North • 


These  spots  are  subject  to  numerous  changes.  When  watched 
from  day  to  day,  they  appear  to  enlarge  or  contract,  to  change 
their  forms,  and  at  length  to  disappear  altogether,  or  to  break 
out  on  parts  of  the  solar  surface  where  there  were  none  before. 
Hevelius  observed  one  which  arose  and  vanished  in  the  space  of 


REMARKABLE  CHANGES  AMONG  THE  SOLAR  SPOTS.  209 


seventeen  hours.  No  spot  has  been  known  to  last  longer  than  one 
that  appeared  in  the  year  1676,  which  continued  upon  the  sun 
above  seventy  days;  but  it  is  seldom  that  any  spots  last  longer 
than  six  weeks.  Those  spots  that  are  formed  gradually  are  gene- 
rally gradually  dissolved ; those  which  arise  suddenly  are,  for  the 
most  part,  suddenly  dissolved.  Dr.  Long,  in  his  “ Astronomy,” 
vol.  ii.,  states,  that — “ While  he  was  viewing  the  image  of  the 
sun  cast  through  a telescope  upon  white  paper,  he  saw  one 
roundish  spot,  by  estimation  not  much  less  in  diameter  than  our 
earth,  break  into  two,  which  immediately  receded  from  one 
another  with  a prodigious  velocity.”  The  Rev.  Dr.  Wollaston, 
when  viewing  the  sun  with  a reflecting  telescope,  perceived  a 
similar  phenomenon.  A spot  burst  in  pieces  while  he  was  ob- 
serving it,  like  a piece  of  ice,  which,  thrown  upon  a frozen  pond, 
breaks  in  pieces,  and  slides  in  various  directions.  On  the  11th 
of  October,  1833,  at  2h  30'  p.m.,  I observed  a large  spot,  with 
several  smaller  ones  behind  it,  as  represented,  fig.  71.  Next 
day,  at  0h  30'  p.m.,  the  small  spots  marked  e had  entirely  dis- 
appeared, and  no  trace  of  them  was  afterwards  seen.  Each  of 
these  spots  was  more  than  a thousand  miles  in  diameter,  yet  they 
were  all  changed  in  the  space  of  twenty-two  hours.  The  spot 
marked  d , near  the  large  spot,  though  at  least  two  or  three 
thousand  miles  in  length,  disappeared  about  three  days  after- 
wards. When  any  spot  begins  to  increase  or  diminish,  the 
nucleus,  or  dark  part,  and  the  penumbra,  contract  and  expand 
at  the  same  time.  During  the  process  of  diminution,  the 
penumbra  encroaches  gradually  upon  the  nucleus,  so  that  the 
figure  of  the  nucleus,  and  the  boundary  between  it  and  the 
penumbra,  are  in  a state  of  perpetual  change;  and  it  sometimes 
happens,  during  these  variations,  that  the  encroachment  of  the 
penumbra  divides  the  nucleus  into  two  or  more  parts.  These 
circumstances  show  that  there  is  a certain  connexion  between 
the  penumbra  and  the  nucleus;  yet  it  is  observed,  that  when 
the  spots  disappear,  the  penumbra  continues  for  a short  time 
visible  after  the  nucleus  has  vanished.  It  is  likewise  observed 
that  the  exterior  boundary  of  the  penumbra  never  consists 
of  sharp  angles,  but  is  always  curvilinear,  how  irregular  soever 
the  outline  of  the  nucleus  may  be.  The  portions  of  the  sun  on 
which  spots  of  any  description  are  perceived,  lie  from  thirty 
to  fifty  degrees  on  each  side  of  its  equator.  No  spots  are  ever 
seen  about  its  polar  regions,  though  I have  sometimes  seen  small 
spots  as  distant  from  the  equator  as  sixty  degrees. 


210 


VARIOUS  SPECIES  OF  SOLAR  SPOTS. 


Fig.  72  shows  the  progress  of  a spot  across  the  sun’s  disk, 
from  its  eastern  to  its  western  limb,  as  observed  and  delineated 
by  Hevelius,  in  May,  1644.  The  figures  refer  to  the  number  of 
days  on  which  the  spot  was  observed.  On  the  first  day  of  the 
observation,  when  the  spot  first  appeared  on  the  eastern  limb,  it 
was  seen  as  represented  at  1 ; the  second  day  it  was  not  visible, 
by  reason  of  cloudy  weather.  The  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  days, 
it  gradually  increased  in  bulk;  the  sixth  day  it  was  not  seen. 
On  the  tenth  and  following  days,  the  spot  was  vastly  increased 
in  bulk,  with  an  irregular  atmosphere  about  it,  and  a dark  central 
spot.  Figs.  73,  74,  7o,  76,  are  representations  of  spots  by  Sir 
W.  Herschel.  Fig.  7o  shows  the  division  of  a decaying  nucleus, 
or  opening,  where  the  luminous  passage  across  the  opening  re- 
sembles a bridge  thrown  over  a hollow. 

Besides  the  dark  spots  now  described,  there  are  other  spots 
which  have  a bright  and  mottled  appearance,  which  were  formerly 
termed  faculce,  and  which  Sir  W.  Herschel  distinguished  by  the 
terms  Nodules , Corrugations , and  Ridges . These  spots  are  chiefly 
to  be  seen  near  the  margin  of  the  sun,  in  the  same  latitudes  in 
which  the  other  spots  appear.  They  appear  first  on  the  eastern 
margin,  and  continue  visible  for  three  or  four  days,  but  are  invi- 
sible when  they  arrive  near  the  middle  of  the  disk;  and  when  they 
approach  near  the  western  limb  they  are  again  distinctly  visible. 
This  circumstance  shows  that  they  are  ridges,  or  elevations,  which 
appear  in  profile  when  near  the  limb,  but  in  front,  or  fore- 
shortened, when  near  the  middle  of  the  disk,  so  as  to  become 
invisible.  They  are  generally  seen  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  dark  spots,  and  in  the  places  wiiere  spots  have  appeared; 
and  hence,  for  several  years  past,  whenever  any  of  these  faculae 
or  ridges  have  appeared  on  the  eastern  margin,  I have  uniformly 
been  enabled  to  predict  the  appearance  of  a large  spot  or  two, 
within  the  course  of  twenty-four  or  thirty  hours;  and  in  more 
than  twenty  or  thirty  instances  I have  never  been  disappointed. 
These  faculse  and  ridges  present  a mottled  and  waving  ap- 
pearance, like  that  of  a country  with  gentle  elevations  and  de- 
pressions, and  bear  a strong  resemblance  to  certain  portions  of  the 
surface  of  the  moon,  particularly  the  more  level  portions  of  that 
orb,  which  present  a number  of  gentle  wavings,  or  elevations  and 
depressions.  And  as  those  wavings  or  ridges  which  appear  on 
the  sun  are,  in  a clear  atmosphere,  as  distinctly  perceptible  as 
the  rough  surface  of  the  moon,  they  must  be  objects  of  immense 
extent,  and  of  very  great  elevation,  whether  they  consist  of 


THE  NATURE  AND  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SUN.  211 


luminous  clouds  or  of  more  dense  materials.  Some  of  those 
spaces  or  ridges  have  been  found  to  occupy  a portion  of  the 
solar  disk  equal  to  seventy-live  thousand  miles.  They  extend 
over  a large  portion  of  the  sun’s  surface,  and  their  shape  and 
position  are  frequently  changing. 

Opinions  and  Deductions  respecting  the  Nature  and  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Sun . — Having  described  the  principal  phenomena 
connected  with  this  immense  luminary,  we  may  now  consider 
what  conclusions  those  appearances  lead  us  to  deduce  respecting 
its  construction,  and  the  processes  which  are  going  on  near  its 
surface.  Very  vague  and  foolish  opinions  have  been  entertained 
respecting  the  nature  of  the  sun,  ever  since  the  invention  of  the 
telescope.  It  has  very  generally  been  considered  as  a vast  body 
of  liquid  lire;  and  in  a large  volume  now  before  me,  published 
only  about  a century  ago,  it  is  considered  as  the  local  place  of 
hell . A large  map  of  the  sun,  copied  from  the  delineations  of 
Kircher  and  Scheiner,  is  exhibited,  in  which  the  solar  surface  is 
represented  as  all  over  covered  with  flames,  smoke,  volcanoes, 
and  u great  fountains,  or  ebullitions,  of  fire  and  light,  spread 
thick  over  the  whole  body  of  it;  and  in  many  places  dark  spots , 
representing  dens  or  caverns,  which  may  be  supposed  the  seats 
of  the  blackness  of  darkness.”*  In  this  picture  the  smoke  and 
flames  are  represented  as  rising  beyond  the  margin  of  the  sun, 
about  a ninth  part  of  its  diameter,  or  nearly  90,000  miles  — a 
picture  as  unlike  the  real  surface  of  the  sun  as  the  gloom  of 
midnight  is  unlike  the  splendours  of  day.  But,  leaving  such 
extravagant  and  untenable  notions,  even  some  philosophers  have 
held  opinions  on  this  subject  altogether  incompatible  with  reason 
and  with  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  sun:  Galileo,  Hevelius, 
and  Maupertuis,  considered  the  spots  as  scoria  floating  in  the  in- 
flammable liquid  matter  of  which  they  conceived  the  sun  to  be 
composed.  Others  have  imagined,  that  the  fluid  which  sends 
forth  light  and  heat  contains  a nucleus,  or  solid  globe,  in  which 
are  several  volcanoes,  like  Etna  or  Vesuvius,  which  from  time  to 
time  cast  forth  quantities  of  bituminous  matter  up  to  the  surface 
of  the  sun,  and  form  those  spots  which  are  seen  upon  it;  and  that, 
as  this  matter  is  gradually  changed  and  consumed  by  the  luminous 
fluid,  the  spots  disappear  for  a time,  but  are  seen  to  rise  again  in 
the  same  places  when  those  volcanoes  cast  up  new  matter.  Others, 

* " An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Place  of  Hell.”  By  the  Rev.  T.  Swindon, 
M.A.,  Rector  of  Cuxton,  in  Kent.  Second  edition,  pp.  470.  London  : 1727. 

p 2 


212 


CERTAIN  PHENOMENA 


again,  have  supposed  that  the  sun  is  a fiery  luminous  fluid,  in 
which  several  opaque  bodies  of  irregular  shapes  are  immersed, 
and  that  these  bodies  are  sometimes  buoyed  up  or  raised  to  the 
surface,  where  they  appear  like  spots;  while  others  imagine  that 
this  luminary  consists  of  a fluid  in  continual  agitation,  by  the 
rapid  motion  of  which,  some  parts,  more  gross  than  the  rest,  are 
carried  up  to  the  surface,  in  like  manner  as  scum  rises  on  the 
top  of  melted  metal,  or  anything  that  is  boiling. 

The  futility  of  all  such  opinions  is  obvious,  when  we  consider 
attentively  all  the  varieties  of  the  solar  phenomena,  and  when 
we  reflect  on  the  immense  magnitude  both  of  the  sun  itself  and 
of  the  spots  which  traverse  its  surface.  What  resemblance  can 
there  be  between  such  volcanoes  as  Etna  and  Vesuvius,  and  spots 
on  the  sun  20,000  miles  in  diameter,  and  several  times  larger 
than  the  whole  earth? — between  the  vast  and  sublime  operations 
going  forward  on  this  magnificent  globe,  and  “ the  scum  and 
scoria  of  melted  metal’’?  We  err  most  egregiously  when  we  at- 
tempt to  compare  the  substances  and  the  puny  operations  which 
we  see  around  us  on  the  globe  we  inhabit,  with  what  takes  place 
on  so  stupendous  a globe  as  the  sun,  whose  constitution  must  be 
so  immensely  different  from  that  of  the  planetary  bodies,  and 
from  everything  within  the  range  of  our  observation  on  this 
earth.  We  talk  of  volcanoes,  of  scoria,  of  boiling  metals,  of 
bituminous  matter,  of  dens  and  caverns,  and  fiery  flames,  in  the 
sun,  as  if  they  were  as  common  there  as  with  us;  whereas  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  nothing  similar  to  any  of  these  is 
to  be  found  in  the  constitution  of  this  vast  luminary.  We  might, 
with  as  good  reason,  attempt  to  compare  the  process  of  vegeta- 
tion on  our  globe,  and  the  tides  and  currents  of  our  ocean,  with 
what  takes  place  on  the  surface  of  Jupiter,  or  on  the  rings  of 
Saturn.  In  all  such  cases  it  is  most  becoming  rather  to  acknow- 
ledge our  ignorance,  than  to  caricature  and  degrade  the  sublimest 
works  of  Omnipotence  by  our  puerile  explanations  and  whimsical 
theories.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  rational  conclu- 
sions which  have  been  deduced  in  reference  to  the  constitution 
of  the  sun. 

In  the  first  place,  from  a variety  of  observations,  it  is  now 
pretty  well  determined  that  the  solar  spots  are  depressions , and 
not  elevations,  and  that  the  black  nucleus  of  every  spot  is  the 
opaque  body  of  the  sun  seen  through  an  opening  in  the  luminous 
atmosphere  with  which  it  is  environed.  This  was  first  ascer- 
tained by  numerous  observations  made  by  the  late  Dr.  Wilson, 


CONNECTED  WITH  THE  SOLAR  SPOTS.  213 

professor  of  astronomy  in  the  university  of  Glasgow.  This  con- 
clusion is  founded  on  the  following  facts: — When, any  spot  is 
about  to  disappear  behind  the  sun’s  western  limb,  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  umbra  first  contracts  in  its  breadth,  and  then 
vanishes.  The  nucleus  then  gradually  contracts  and  vanishes, 
while  the  western  portion  of  the  umbra  still  remains  visible. 
When  a spot  comes  into  view  on  the  sun’s  eastern  limb,  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  umbra  first  becomes  visible,  then  the  dark 
nucleus,  and  then  the  western  part  of  the  umbra  makes  its  ap- 
pearance. When  two  spots  are  near  each  other,  the  umbra  of 
the  one  spot  is  deficient  on  the  side  next  the  other;  and  when 
one  of  the  spots  is  much  larger  than  the  other,  the  union  of  the 
largest  will  be  completely  wanting  on  the  side  next  the  small 
one.  From  various  micrometrical  estimates  and  calculations  in 
relation  to  the  breadth  of  the  umbra,  and  the  manner  of  their  ap- 
pearance and  disappearance,  the  doctor  was  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  depth  of  the  nucleus  or  dark  part  of  the  spots  was,  in 
several  instances,  from  2000  to  nearly  4000  miles.  In  order  to 
confirm  his  theory,  he  constructed  a globe  representing  the  sun, 
with  certain  hollows  cut  out  to  represent  the  spots  or  excava- 
tions, which  were  painted  black  with  Indian  ink,  and  the  slope 
or  shelving  sides  of  the  excavations  were  distinguished  from  the 
brightness  of  the  external  surface  by  a shade  of  the  pencil,  which 
increased  towards  the  external  border.  When  this  artificial  sun 
was  fixed  in  a proper  frame,  and  examined  at  a great  distance 
with  a telescope,  the  umbra  and  the  nucleus  exhibited  the  same 
phenomena  which  are  observed  on  the  real  sun.* 

Sir  William  Herschel,  with  his  powerful  telescopes,  made 
numerous  observations  on  the  solar  spots,  and  arrived  at  the  same 
conclusion  as  Dr.  Wilson  had  done,  that  the  dark  nucleus  of  the 
spots  is  the  opaque  body  of  the  sun  appearing  through  the  open- 
ings in  its  atmosphere,  and  that  the  luminous  surface  of  the  sun 
is  neither  a liquid  substance  nor  an  elastic  fluid,  but  luminous 
or  phosphoric  clouds  floating  in  the  solar  atmosphere.  He  con- 
ceives, from  the  uniformity  of  colour  in  the  penumbra,  or  shallows , 
that,  below  these  self-luminous  clouds,  there  is  another  stratum 
of  clouds  of  inferior  brightness,  which  is  intended  as  a curtain 
to  protect  the  solid  and  opaque  body  of  the  sun  from  the  intense 

* See  an  elaborate  paper  on  this  subject  by  Dr.  Wilson,  in  vol.  lxiv.  of  the 
“ Philosophical  Transactions and  another,  in  reply  to  some  objections  of 
La  Lande,  in  the  volume  for  1783. 


214 


CONCLUSIONS  RESPECTING 


brilliancy  and  heat  of  the  luminous  clouds;  and  that  “the 
luminous  strata  are  sustained  far  above  the  level  of  the  solid 
body  by  a transparent  elastic  medium,  carrying,  on  its  upper 
surface,  or  at  some  considerably  lower  level  within  its  depth,  a 
cloudy  stratum,  which,  being  strongly  illuminated  from  above, 
reflects  a considerable  portion  of  the  light  to  our  eyes,  and  forms 
a penumbra,  while  the  solid  body,  shaded  by  the  clouds,  reflects 
little  or  none.” 

What,  then,  are  the  conclusions  which  may  be  deduced  in  re- 
gard to  the  constitution  of  the  sun?  In  the  first  place,  we  must 
admit  that,  at  present,  we  know  very  little  of  the  nature  of  this 
immense  luminary,  and  of  the  processes  that  are  going  forward 
on  its  surface  or  in  its  atmosphere.  For  there  is  no  similar  body 
with  which  we  are  intimately  acquainted,  with  which  we  can 
compare  it,  and  which  might  enable  us  to  form  some  definite 
conceptions  of  the  causes  which  produce  the  phenomena  it  pre- 
sents. But,  2,  it  appears  highly  probable,  if  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain, that  the  great  body  of  the  sun  consists  of  an  opaque  solid 
globe,  most  probably  diversified  with  elevations  and  depressions; 
but  of  the  nature  or  qualities  of  this  interior  globe,  and  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  we  are  altogether  unacquainted. 

3.  That  this  opaque  globe  is  surrounded  with  a body  of  light 
which  it  diffuses  throughout  the  planetary  system,  and  far  be- 
yond it;  but  whether  this  light  consists  of  phosphoric  clouds,  in 
perpetual  motion,  or  how  it  is  produced,  and  kept  continually  in 
action,  is  only  matter  of  conjecture.  But,  in  whatever  it  consists, 
it  is  pretty  evident  that  it  forms  a shell  or  covering  around  the 
dark  body  of  the  sun,  of  several  thousand  miles  in  thickness. 

4.  There  are  stupendous  motions  and  operations  continually 
going  forward  in  connexion  with  the  surface,  or  the  luminous 
atmosphere  of  this  immense  body. 

That  extensive  and  amazing  operations  and  processes  are 
going  forward  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  or  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  appears  from  the  immense  size  of  both  the  dark  and 
luminous  spots,  and  the  sudden  and  extensive  changes  to  which 
they  are  frequently  subjected.  Spots  have  been  observed  on  the 
solar  disk  so  large  as  the  of  the  sun’s  diameter,  and  of  course 
44,000  miles  in  lineal  extent,  comprising  an  area  of  one  thousand 
five  hundred  and  twenty  millions  of  square  miles.  Now,  it  is 
known  from  observation,  that  such  spots  seldom  or  never  last 
longer  than  forty-four  days,  and  consequently  their  borders  must 
approach  at  the  rate  of  at  least  a thousand  miles  every  day,  but 


THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SUN. 


215 


in  most  cases  with  a much  more  rapid  motion.  What,  then, 
shall  we  think  of  the  motions  and  operations  by  which  a large 
spot  has  been  made  to  disappear  in  the  course  of  twenty-two 
hours,  as  I have  sometimes  observed,  yea,  which  has  disappeared 
in  the  course  of  a single  hour?  And  what  shall  we  think  of 
the  process  by  which  a spot  as  large  as  the  earth  was  broken 
into  two  during  the  moment  of  observation,  and  made  to  recede 
from  each  other,  as  was  observed  both  by  Dr.  Long  and  Dr.  Wol- 
laston? (see  p.  209.)  How  powerful  the  forces,  how  rapid  the 
motions,  and  how  extensive  the  changes,  which  must  have  been 
produced  in  such  cases!  Whether  we  consider  such  changes  to 
be  produced  in  the  solid  globe  of  the  sun,  or  merely  in  the 
luminous  atmosphere  with  which  it  is  environed,  the  scale  on 
which  such  movements  and  operations  must  be  conducted  is 
immense,  and  altogether  overpowering  to  the  imagination.  What 
should  we  think  were  we  to  behold  the  whole  of  the  clouds  which 
float  in  the  earth’s  atmosphere  dissipated  in  a moment;  the  con- 
tinent of  America  detached  from  its  basis  and  transported  across 
the  Atlantic;  or  the  vast  Pacific  ocean,  in  the  course  of  a few 
days,  overwhelming  with  its  billows  the  whole  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe?  Amazing  as  such  changes  and  revolutions  would 
appear,  there  are,  in  all  probability,  operations  and  changes, 
though  of  a very  different  description,  taking  place  on  the  solar 
surface  or  atmosphere  upon  a scale  of  much  larger  extent  It  is 
found  by  calculation,  that  the  smallest  space,  containing  a visible 
area,  which  can  be  distinctly  perceived  on  the  sun  with  good 
telescopes,  is  about  460  miles;  and  a circle  of  this  diameter  con- 
tains above  166,000  square  miles.  Now  those  ridges  or  corru- 
gations, formerly  termed  faculcey  -which  are  seen  near  the  sun’s 
margin,  are  more  than  twenty  times  larger  than  such  a space; 
they  evidently  appear  to  be  elevations  and  depressions  on  the 
solar  surface,  and  are  almost  as  distinctly  perceptible  as  the 
wavings  and  inequalities  on  the  surface  of  the  moon.  How  im- 
mensely large  and  elevated,  then,  must  such  objects  in  reality 
be,  when  we  perceive  their  inequalities  so  distinctly  at  the  dis- 
tance of  ninety-five  millions  of  miles!  The  elevated  parts  of 
such  objects  cannot  be  less  than  several  hundreds  of  miles  above 
the  level  of  the  valleys  or  depressions,  and  extending  in  length 
several  thousands  of  miles.  Yet,  sometimes  in  a few  days,  or  at 
most  in  a few  weeks,  these  extensive  objects  are  either  dissipated, 
or  dark  spots  appear  in  their  room. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  stupendous  powers  are  in  action, 


216 


VAST  AMPLITUDE  OF  THE  SUN. 


and  vast  operations  are  going  on  in  connexion  with  this  august 
luminary,  far  surpassing  everything  within  the  range  of  our 
contemplation  in  this  terrestrial  sphere,  and  of  which  the  human 
mind  can  form  no  distinct  conception.  These  operations  appear 
to  be  carried  forward  in  a systematic  order,  and  by  the  regular 
influence  of  certain  physical  agents.  But  what  these  agents  are; 
how  they  produce  their  effects;  wherein  they  differ  in  their 
nature  and  properties  from  the  physical  agents  connected  with 
our  globe;  whether  they  be  employed  in  keeping  up  a constant 
efflux  of  light  and  heat  to  the  worlds  which  roll  around;  or 
whether  their  activities  have  any  relation  to  intelligent  beings 
connected  with  the  sun — are  questions  which  in  our  present  state 
it  is  impossible  to  resolve.  But  we  can  easily  conceive  that  scenes 
of  overpowering  grandeur  and  sublimity  would  be  presented  to 
view,  could  we  suppose  ourselves  placed  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  this  luminary.  Were  we  placed  within  a hundred  miles  of 
the  solar  luminous  atmosphere,  where  the  operations,  which  we 
now  behold  at  a remote  distance,  would  be  distinctly  perceived, 
we  should,  doubtless,  behold  a scene  of  overwhelming  mag- 
nificence and  splendour,  and  a series  of  sublime  phenomena  far 
surpassing  what  “ eye  hath  yet  seen,”  or  the  mind  of  man  can 
yet  conceive.  Were  we  placed  within  this  luminous  atmosphere, 
on  the  solid  surface  of  the  sun,  we  should  doubtless  contemplate 
a scene  altogether  novel,  and  still  more  brilliant  and  astonishing. 
To  a spectator  in  this  position  an  opening  in  the  luminous  atmo- 
sphere, several  thousands  of  miles  in  circumference,  where  none 
appeared  before,  would  be  presented  to  his  view,  through  which 
the  stars  of  heaven  might  possibly  be  perceived;  and  in  a 
short  time  this  opening  would  gradually  close,  and  he  would  find 
himself  again  surrounded  with  ineffable  splendour;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  he  might  have  a view  of  the  physical  agents  by  which 
these  astonishing  effects  are  produced.  In  a short  time  another 
opening  of  a different  kind  would  be  perceived,  and  other  scenes 
and  transformations  would  be  exhibited  to  the  view,  in  regular 
succession.  That  such  scenes  would  actually  be  exhibited,  is  a 
natural  deduction  from  the  theory  (which  may  be  considered  as 
established)  that  the  sun  consists  of  a solid  globe,  surrounded 
with  a luminous  atmosphere,  and  that  the  dark  spots  are  the 
openings  in  that  luminous  fluid. 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  sun,  which  we  daily  behold,  is  a 
body  of  ineffable  magnitude  and  splendour,  and  that  the  most 
magnificent  operations  are  incessantly  going  forward  on  its 


VIEW  FROM  ETNA  COMPARED  WITH  THE  SUN.  217 


surface,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  It  is,  indeed,  a kind  of 
universe  in  itself,  the  magnitude,  and  extent,  and  grandeur  of 
which,  and  the  vast  and  sublime  operations  connected  with  its 
physical  constitution,  surpass  the  powers  of  the  human  mind  to 
form  any  adequate  conception.  We  are  destitute  of  a substratum 
of  thought  for  enabling  us  to  form  a comprehensive  conception 
on  this  subject.  When  we  ascend  to  the  top  of  Mount  Etna,  or 
Mount  Blanc,  and  survey  the  vast  group  of  surrounding  objects 
which  appear  around  and  beneath  us,  when  the  morning  sun 
illuminates  the  landscape,  we  behold  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
expansive  objects  that  can  meet  our  eye  in  this  sublunary  scene; 
and  we  can  compare  it  with  objects  that  are  smaller,  and  with 
those  that  are  somewhat  larger.  But  the  amplitude  of  such  a 
scene  extends  only  to  a hundred  or  a hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
every  direction,  which  is  less  than  the  least  visible  point  or  spot 
which  we  can  perceive  on  the  sun  with  the  most  powerful  tele- 
scopes. Were  we  transported  to  a point  eight  or  ten  thousand 
miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  take  in  nearly  at 
one  view  the  whole  hemisphere  of  our  globe;  and  were  our  eyes 
to  be  strengthened  so  as  to  be  able  to  perceive  every  part  of  its 
surface  distinctly,  our  ideas  of  magnitude  would  be  vastly  en- 
larged, and  we  should  be  enabled  to  form  more  correct  and 
comprehensive  conceptions  than  we  can  now  do,  of  the  still 
greater  magnitudes  of  many  of  the  celestial  bodies.  But  even 
such  an  object  as  the  whole  of  the  earth’s  hemisphere,  seen  at 
one  comprehensive  view,  would  afford  us  comparatively  little 
assistance  in  forming  an  adequate  conception  of  such  a stupendous 
globe  as  the  sun;  it  would  not  equal  the  idea  of  magnitude  which 
we^ought  to  attach  to  one  of  the  smaller  spots  on  its  surface; 
for  the  area  of  the  solar  surface  is  twenty-four  thousand  seven 
hundred  times  greater;  so  that  24,700  scenes,  equal  in  magnitude 
to  the  hemisphere  of  our  globe,  must  pass  before  us  in  review, 
before  we  could  acquire  a comprehensive  and  adequate  idea  of 
the  expansive  surface  of  the  sun.  And  were  a scene  of  this  de- 
scription to  pass  before  our  eyes  every  two  hours,  till  an  extent 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  sun  passed  under  our  view,  and  were 
twelve  hours  every  day  allotted  for  the  observation,  it  would  re- 
quire more  than  eleven  years  before  such  a rapid  survey  of  this 
vast  luminary  could  be  completed.  But,  as  we  can  have  no 
adequate  idea  of  a scene  comprehending  a whole  hemisphere  of 
our  globe,  let  us  compare  the  view  from  Mount  Etna  with  the 
amplitude  of  the  sun.  “ There  is  no  one  point  on  the  surface 


218 


MAGNIFICENCE  OF  THE  CREATOR. 


of  the  globe,”  says  Mr.  Brydone,  “that  unites  so  many  awful 
and  sublime  objects  as  the  top  of  Etna,  and  no  imagination  has 
dared  to  form  an  idea  of  so  glorious  and  magnificent  a scene. 
The  body  of  the  sun  is  seen  rising  from  the  ocean,  immense 
tracks  both  of  sea  and  land  intervening;  the  islands  of  Panari, 
Alicudi,  Lipari,  Stromboli,  and  Volcano,  with  their  smoking 
summits,  appear  under  your  feet,  and  you  look  down  on  the 
whole  of  Sicily  as  on  a map,  and  can  trace  every  river  through 
all  its  windings,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  The  view  is  ab- 
solutely boundless  on  every  side,  so  that  the  sight  is  everywhere 
lost  in  the  immensity.”  Yet  this  glorious  and  expansive  prospect 
is  comprised  within  a circle  about  240  miles  in  diameter,  and 
754  in  circumference,  containing  45,240  square  miles,  which  is 
only  the  Tfcygw  Part  °f  surface  of  the  sun ; so  that  fifty- 
three  millions  seven  hundred  and  seventy-six  thousand  land- 
scapes, such  as  beheld  from  Mount  Etna,  behoved  to  pass  before 
us,  before  we  could  contemplate  a surface  as  expansive  as  that 
of  the  sun;  and  if  every  such  landscape  were  to  occupy  two 
hours  in  the  contemplation,  as  supposed  above,  it  would  require 
twenty-four  thousand  Jive  hundred  and  fifty  four  years  before 
the  whole  surface  of  this  immense  globe  could  be,  in  this  manner, 
surveyed;  and,  after  all,  we  should  have  but  a very  imperfect 
conception  of  the  solid  contents  of  the  sun,  which  contains 
356,818,739,200,000,000  of  cubical  miles,  which  number  is 
146,670  times  greater  than  the  number  of  square  miles  upon  its 
surface. 

What  a glorious  idea,  then,  does  such  an  object  as  the  sun 
present  to  us  of  the  Grandeur  of  the  Deity  and  the  Energies 
of  Omnipotence!  There  is  no  single  object  within  the  range  of 
our  knowledge  that  affords  a more  striking  and  august  emblem 
of  its  Great  Creator.  In  its  lustre,  in  its  magnitude,  in  its 
energy,  in  its  boundless  influence,  and  in  its  beneficial  effects  on 
this  earth,  and  on  surrounding  worlds,  there  is  a more  bright 
display  of  Divine  perfection  than  in  any  other  material  being 
with  which  we  are  acquainted: — 

“ Great  source  of  day  ! best  image  here  below 
Of  tliy  Creator  ! ever  pouring  wide 
From  world  to  world,  the  vital  ocean  round, 

On  Nature  write,  with  every  beam,  his  praise.” 

Could  such  a magnificent  orb  have  been  produced  by  a for- 
tuitous concourse  of  atoms,  and  placed  in  its  proper  position  to 
distribute  light  and  attractive  influence  to  the  worlds  which  roll 
around  it?  Could  chance  have  directed  the  distance  at  which  it 


IS  THE  SUN  INHABITED  ? 


219 


should  be  placed  from  the  respective  planets,  or  the  size  to  which 
it  should  be  expanded,  in  order  to  diffuse  its  energies  to  the  re- 
motest part  of  the  system?  Could  chance  have  impressed  upon 
it  the  laws  requisite  for  sustaining  in  their  courses  all  the  bodies 
dependent  upon  it,  or  have  endowed  it  with  a source  of  illumi- 
nation which  has  been  preserved  in  action  from  age  to  age?  To 
affirm  such  positions  would  be  to  undermine  and  annihilate  the 
principles  of  all  our  reasonings.  The  existence  of  the  sun  proves 
the  existence  of  an  Eternal  and  Supreme  Divinity,  and  at  the 
same  time  demonstrates  his  omnipotent  power,  his  uncontrollable 
agency,  the  depths  of  his  wisdom,  and  the  riches  of  his  bene- 
ficence. If  such  a luminary  be  so  glorious  and  incomprehen- 
sible, what  must  its  Creator  be?  If  its  splendour  be  so  dazzling 
to  our  eyes,  and  its  magnitude  so  overpowering  to  our  imagina- 
tion, what  must  He  be  who  lighted  up  that  magnificent  orb,  and 
bade  a retinue  of  worlds  revolve  around  it — who  “ dwells  in 
light  inaccessible,  to  which  no  mortal  eye  can  approach”?  If 
the  sun  is  only  one  out  of  many  myriads  of  similar  globes  dis- 
persed throughout  the  illimitable  tracts  of  creation,  how  great — 
how  glorious — how  far  surpassing  human  comprehension — must 
be  the  plans  and  the  attributes  of  the  infinite  and  eternal  Creator! 
“ His  greatness  is  unsearchable,  and  his  ways  past  finding  out.” 
Could  we  thoroughly  comprehend  the  depths  of  his  perfections, 
or  the  grandeur  of  his  empire,  he  would  cease  to  be  God,  or  we 
should  cease  to  be  limited  and  dependent  beings.  But,  in  pre- 
senting to  our  view  such  magnificent  objects,  it  is  evidently  his 
intention  that  we  should  rise,  in  our  contemplations,  from  the 
effect  to  the  cause,  from  the  creature  to  the  Creator,  from  the 
visible  splendours  and  magnificence  of  creation  to  the  invisible 
glories  of  Him  who  sits  on  the  throne  of  the  universe,  “ whose 
kingdom  ruleth  over  all,  and  before  whom  all  nations  are  counted 
as  less  than  nothing,  and  vanity.” 

It  might  here  form  a subject  of  inquiry,  whether  there  he  any 
reason  to  believe  that  the  sun  is  inhabited ? Most  astronomers 
have  been  disposed  to  answer  this  question  in  the  negative. 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  however,  and  several  others,  consider  it  as  not 
altogether  improbable  that  the  sun  is  peopled  with  rational 
beings.  Viewing  this  luminary  as  consisting  of  a dark  solid 
nucleus,  surrounded  by  two  strata  of  clouds,  the  outermost 
the  region  of  that  light  and  heat  which  are  diffused  to  the 
remotest  part  of  the  system,  they  conceived  that  the  interior 
stratum  was  intended  to  protect  the  inhabitants  of  the  sun  from 
the  fiery  blaze  of  the  sphere  of  light  and  heat  with  which  they 


220 


BENIGN  AGENCIES  OF  THE  SUN. 


are  surrounded.  On  either  side  of  this  question  it  becomes  us 
to  speak  with  diffidence  and  modesty.  We  ought  not  to  set 
limits  to  the  wisdom  and  arrangements  of  the  Creator,  by  affirm- 
ing that  rational  beings  could  not  exist  and  find  enjoyment  on 
such  a globe  as  the  sun,  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  light  and 
heat  which  for  ever  prevails  in  that  region.  For  it  is  probable 
that  the  luminous  matter  that  encompasses  the  solid  globe  of  the 
sun  does  not  derive  its  splendour  from  any  intensity  of  heat.  If 
this  were  the  case,  the  parts  underneath,  which  are  perpetually 
in  contact  with  that  glowing  matter,  would  be  heated  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  become  luminous  and  bright,  whereas  we  find  that 
they  have  uniformly  a dark  appearance;  so  that  it  is  possible  the 
interior  region  of  the  sun  may  be  in  a state  of  comparatively 
low  temperature.  For  anything  we  know  to  the  contrary,  or 
can  demonstrate,  the  sun  may  be  one  of  the  most  splendid  and 
delightful  regions  of  the  universe,  and  scenes  of  magnificence 
and  grandeur  may  be  there  displayed,  far  surpassing  anything 
that  is  to  be  found  in  the  planets  which  revolve  around  it,  and 
its  population  may  as  far  exceed  in  number  that  of  other  worlds 
as  the  immense  size  of  this  globe  exceeds  that  of  all  the  other 
bodies  in  the  system.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  know  too  little 
of  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the  sun,  and  the  plans  of  Divine 
Wisdom,  to  warrant  us  in  making  any  positive  assertions  on  this 
point.  Although  no  intelligent  beings  were  connected  with  this 
great  luminary,  its  boundless  influence  in  the  planetary  system — 
its  being  the  soul  and  centre  of  surrounding  worlds — its  diffusing 
light  and  heat,  and  genial  influences  of  various  kinds,  to  all  the 
tribes  of  their  inhabitants — and  its  cementing  them  all,  by  its 
attractive  energy,  in  one  harmonious  system — are  reasons  suf- 
ficient for  the  creation  of  this  vast  globe,  without  the  influence 
of  which  perpetual  darkness  would  ensue,  the  planets  would  start 
from  their  spheres,  and  the  whole  system  soon  become  one  uni- 
versal wreck. 

It  is  owing  to  the  existence  of  the  sun  that  our  globe  is  a 
habitable  world,  and  productive  of  enjoyment.  Almost  all  the 
benign  agencies  which  are  going  forward  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
waters,  and  the  earth,  derive  their  origin  from  its  powerful  and 
perpetual  influence.  Its  light  diffuses  itself  over  every  region, 
and  produces  all  that  diversity  of  colouring  which  enlivens  and 
adorns  the  landscape  of  the  world,  without  which  we  should  be 
unable  to  distinguish  one  object  from  another.  By  its  vivifying 
action,  vegetables  are  elaborated  from  inorganic  matter,  the  sap 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  SUN. 


221 


ascends  through  their  myriads  of  vessels,  the  flowers  glow  with 
the  richest  hues,  the  fruits  of  autumn  are  matured,  and  become 
in  their  turn  the  support  of  animals  and  of  man.  By  its  heat,  the 
waters  of  the  rivers  and  the  ocean  are  attenuated  and  carried  to 
the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  where  they  circulate  in 
the  form  of  vapour,  till  they  again  descend  in  showers,  to  supply 
the  sources  of  the  rivers,  and  to  fertilize  the  soil.  By  the  same 
agency,  all  winds  are  produced,  which  purify  the  atmosphere,  by 
keeping  it  in  perpetual  motion,  which  propel  our  ships  across  the 
ocean,  dispel  noxious  vapours,  prevent  pestilential  effluvia,  and  rid 
our  habitations  of  a thousand  nuisances.  By  its  attractive  energy, 
the  tides  of  the  ocean  are  modified  and  regulated,  the  earth  con- 
ducted in  its  annual  course,  and  the  moon  sustained  and  directed 
in  her  motions.  Its  influence  descends  even  to  the  mineral  king- 
dom, and  is  felt  in  the  chemical  compositions  and  decompositions 
of  the  elements  of  nature.  The  disturbances  in  the  electric 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere,  which  produce  the  phenomena  of 
thunder,  lightning,  and  rain,  and  the  varieties  of  terrestrial 
magnetism;  the  slow  degradation  of  the  solid  constituents  of  the 
globe,  and  their  diffusion  among  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  may 
all  be  traced,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  agency  of  the 
sun.  It  illuminates  and  cheers  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 
from  the  polar  regions  to  the  torrid  zone.  When  its  rays  gild 
the  eastern  horizon,  after  the  darkness  of  the  night,  something 
like  a new  creation  appears.  The  landscape  is  adorned  with  a 
thousand  shades  and  colours;  millions  of  insects  awake  and  bask 
in  its  rays;  the  birds  start  from  their  slumbers,  and  fill  the 
groves  with  their  melody;  the  flocks  and  herds  express  their  joy 
in  hoarser  acclamations;  “man  goeth  forth  to  his  work  and  to 
his  labour;”  all  nature  smiles,  and  “the  hills  rejoice  on  every 
side.”  Without  the  influence  of  this  august  luminary,  a universal 
gloom  would  ensue,  and  surrounding  worlds,  with  all  their  trains 
of  satellites,  would  be  shrouded  in  perpetual  darkness.  This 
earth  would  become  a lifeless  mass,  a dreary  waste,  a rude  lump 
of  inactive  matter,  without  beauty  or  order.  No  longer  should 
we  behold  the  meadows  clothed  with  verdure,  the  flowers  shed- 
ding their  perfumes,  nor  “the  valleys  covered  with  corn.”  The 
feathered  songsters  would  no  longer  chant  their  melodious  notes 
— all  human  activity  would  cease — universal  silence  would  reign 
undisturbed,  and  this  huge  globe  of  land  and  water  would  return 
to  its  original  chaos. 

Hence  it  appears  that  there  is  a sufficient  reason  for  the  crea- 


222 


WHETHER  THE  SOLAR  PHENOMENA 


tion  of  this  powerful  luminary,  although  no  sensitive  or  intelli- 
gent beings  of  any  description  were  placed  on  its  surface.  But, 
at  the  same  time,  when  we  consider  the  infinite  wisdom  and  in- 
telligence of  the  Divine  mind,  and  that  the  thoughts  and  the  ways 
of  God  as  far  surpass  the  thoughts  of  man,  as  the  heavens  in 
height  surpass  the  earth  — when  we  consider  that  animated 
beings,  on  our  own  globe,  are  found  in  situations  where  we 
should  never  have  expected  them — that  every  puddle  and  marsh, 
and  almost  every  drop  of  water,  is  crowded  with  living  beings — 
and  that  even  the  very  viscera  in  the  larger  animals  can  afford 
accommodation  for  sentient  existence — it  would  be  presumptuous 
in  man  to  affirm  that  the  Creator  has  not  placed  innumerable 
orders  of  sentient  and  intelligent  beings,  with  senses  and  consti- 
tutions accommodated  to  their  situations,  throughout  the  expan- 
sive regions  of  the  sun. 

It  has  been  a question  which  has  exercised  the  attention  of 
some  astronomers,  whether  the  solar  phenomena  have  any  effect 
upon  the  weather , or  the  productiveness  of  our  seasons.  Sir  W. 
Herschel  was  of  opinion,  that  when  the  corrugations  and  openings 
of  the  solar  atmosphere  are  numerous,  the  heat  emitted  by  the 
sun  must  be  proportionably  increased,  and  that  this  augmentation 
must  be  perceptible  by  its  effects  on  vegetation;  and,  by  com- 
paring the  solar  appearances  as  given  by  La  Lande  with  the 
table  of  the  price  of  wheat  in  Smith’s  “ Wealth  of  Nations,”  he 
obtained  results  which  he  considered  as  favourable  to  his  hypo- 
thesis. But  it  is  evident  that  we  are  not  yet  in  possession  of 
such  a series  of  facts  in  relation  to  this  subject  as  will  warrant 
us  to  draw  any  general  conclusions.  Besides,  we  know  too  little 
of  the  construction  of  the  sun,  and  the  nature  of  those  processes 
which  are  going  on  in  its  atmosphere,  to  be  able  to  determine 
the  proportion  of  light  and  heat  which  particular  phenomena  in- 
dicate. So  far  as  my  own  observation  goes,  I should  be  disposed 
to  adopt  an  opposite  conclusion — namely,  that  in  those  years 
when  the  spots  on  the  sun  are  numerous,  the  seasons  are  colder 
and  more  unproductive  of  vegetation.  This  was  remarkably  the 
case  in  the  year  1816,  'when  the  solar  spots  were  extremely 
numerous,  and  when  the  harvest  was  so  late  and  scanty  that  the 
price  of  all  kinds  of  grain  was  more  than  double  what  it  had 
been  before,  or  what  it  has  been  since.  The  years  1836  and 
1837  afford  similar  examples;  for,  during  an  interval  of  eighteen 
months,  the  solar  spots  were  more  numerous  than  in  any  other 
period  in  my  recollection;  and  the  cold  of  the  summer  and  har- 


HAVE  ANY  EFFECT  ON  THE  WEATHER. 


223 


vest  of  1836,  and  of  the  winter  and  spring  of  1837,  and  its  un- 
favourable effects  on  vegetation,  were  greater  than  what  had 
been  experienced  for  more  than  twenty  years  before.  But  on  this 
point  we  are  not  yet  warranted  to  draw  any  positive  conclusions. 
Before  we  can  trace  any  general  connexion  between  the  solar 
spots  and  the  temperature  and  vegetation  of  our  globe,  in  any 
particular  season,  we  must  endeavour  to  ascertain  the  effects 
produced  on  vegetation,  not  only  in  two  or  three  particular 
countries,  which  lie  adjacent  to  each  other,  but  over  all  the 
regions  of  the  earth.  It  maybe  proper  to  direct  our  future  obser- 
vations to  this  point,  as  they  might  probably  lead  to  some  im- 
portant results;  but  a considerable  period  behoved  to  elapse  before 
we  could  be  warranted  to  deduce  any  definite  conclusions. 

Whether  the  sun  has  a progressive  motion  in  absolute  space , is 
another  question  which  has  engaged  the  attention  of  astronomers. 
If  the  sun  have  such  a motion  directed  to  any  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  the  stars  in  that  quarter  must  apparently  recede  from 
each  other,  while  those  in  the  opposite  region  will  seem  gradually 
to  approach.  Sir  W.  Herschel  found  that  the  apparent  proper 
motion  of  forty-four  stars  out  of  fifty-six,  are  very  nearly  in  the 
direction  which  should  result  from  a motion  of  the  sun  towards 
the  constellation  Hercules , or  to  a point  of  the  heavens  whose 
right  ascension  is  250°  52^',  and  north  declination,  49°  38'. 
“ No  one,”  says  Sir  John  Herschel,  “ who  reflects  with  due  at- 
tention on  the  subject,  will  be  inclined  to  deny  the  high  proba- 
bility, nay,  certainty , that  the  sun  has  a proper  motion  in  some 
direction.”  But  it  appears  to  be  yet  undetermined,  by  modern 
astronomers,  to  what  point  in  the  heavens  this  motion  is  directed, 
and  whether  it  be  in  a straight  line,  or  in  a portion  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  an  immense  circle.  If  the  sun,  then,  has  a proper 
motion  in  space,  all  the  planetary  bodies  and  their  satellites, 
along  with  the  comets,  must  partake  of  it;  so  that,  besides  their 
own  proper  motions  around  this  luminary,  they  are  likewise 
carried  along  with  the  sun  through  the  depths  of  infinite  space, 
with  a velocity  perhaps  as  great  as  that  with  which  they  are 
carried  round  in  their  orbits.  Our  earth  will  therefore  partake  of 
three  motions — one  round  its  axis,  another  round  the  sun,  and  a 
third  in  the  direction  in  which  the  sun  is  moving;  and,  conse- 
quently, it  is  probable  that  we  shall  never  again  occupy  that 
portion  of  absolute  space  through  which  we  are  now  passing, 
throughout  all  the  succeeding  periods  of  eternity. 

The  Zodiacal  Light . — The  zodiacal  light  is  a phenomenon 


224 


THE  ZODIACAL  LIGHT. 


which  has  been  generally  considered  as  connected  with  the  sun. 
This  light  appears  to  have  been  first  noticed  by  Mr.  Childrey, 
about  the  year  1660;  but  it  was  afterwards  more  particularly 
noticed  and  described  by  Cassini,  in  the  spring  of  1683,  which 
was  the  first  time  he  had  seen  it,  and  he  observed  it  for  about 
eight  days.  It  appears  generally  in  a conical  form,  having  its 
base  directed  towards  the  body  of  the  sun,  and  its  point  towards 
some  star  in  the  zodiac.  Its  light  is  like  the  milky  way,  or 
that  of  the  faint  twilight,  or  the  tail  of  a comet,  thin  enough  to 
let  the  stars  be  seen  through  it,  and  seems  to  surround  the  sun 
in  the  form  of  a lens,  the  plane  of  which  is  nearly  coincident 
with  the  plane  of  the  sun’s  equator.  The  apparent  angular  dis- 
tance of  its  vertex  from  the  sun  varies  from  40  to  90  degrees, 
and  the  breadth  of  its  base,  perpendicular  to  its  axis,  from  8 to 
30  degrees.  It  is  supposed  to  extend  beyond  the  orbit  of  Mer- 
curjr,  and  even  as  far  as  that  of  Venus,  but  never  so  far  as  the 
orbit  of  the  earth.  This  light  is  weaker  in  the  morning,  when 
day  is  coming  on,  than  at  night,  when  darkness  is  increasing, 
and  it  disappears  in  full  moonlight  or  in  strong  twilight.  In 
north  latitudes  it  is  most  conspicuous  after  the  evening  twilight, 
about  the  end  of  February  and  the  beginning  of  March;  and 
before  the  appearing  of  the  morning  twilight,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  October;  for  at  those  times  it  stands  most  erect  above 
the  horizon,  and  is  therefore  farthest  removed  from  the  thick 
vapours  and  the  twilight.  About  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice  it 
may  likewise  be  seen  in  the  mornings;  but  it  is  seldom  percep- 
tible in  summer,  on  account  of  the  long  twilights.  It  is  more 
easily  and  more  frequently  perceived  in  tropical  climates,  and 
particularly  near  the  equator,  than  in  our  country,  because  in 
those  parts  the  obliquity  of  the  equator  and  zodiac  to  the  horizon 
is  less,  and  because  the  duration  of  twilight  is  much  shorter. 
Humboldt  observed  this  light  at  Caraccas,  on  the  18th  of  January, 
after  seven  o’clock  in  the  evening.  The  point  of  the  pyramid 
was  at  the  height  of  53  degrees;  and  the  light  totally  disap- 
peared about  half-past  nine,  about  3f  hours  after  sunset,  without 
any  diminution  in  the  serenity  of  the  sky.  On  the  15th  of  Fe- 
bruary it  disappeared  2 hours  and  50  minutes  after  sunset,  and 
the  altitude  of  the  pyramid  on  both  these  occasions  was  50°. 
The  figure  on  the  opposite  page  exhibits  a view  of  this  pheno- 
menon as  it  is  seen  about  the  beginning  of  March,  at  seven 
o’clock  in  the  evening,  when  the  twilight  is  ending,  and  the 
equinoctial  point  in  the  horizon.  A B represents  the  horizon; 


NOVEMBER  METEORS. 


225 


CD , the  base  of  the  luminous  triangle;  and  E , its  apex,  pointing 
towards  the  Pleiades,  or  the  star  Aldebaran;  its  axis  forming  an 
angle  of  between  60  and  70  degrees  with  the  horizon. 

Fig.  69. 


Various  opinions  have  been  entertained  as  to  the  cause  of 
this  phenomenon;  but  as  it  uniformly  accompanies  the  sun,  it 
has  been  generally  ascribed  to  an  atmosphere  of  immense  extent 
surrounding  that  luminary,  and  extending  beyond  the  orbit  of 
Mercury.  According  to  this  opinion  the  zodiacal  light  is  consi- 
dered as  a section  of  this  atmosphere;  but  this  opinion  now 
appears  extremely  dubious.  Professor  Olmstead,  of  Yale  College, 
the  celebrated  Arago,  Biot,  and  others,  are  now  disposed  to 
identify  this  phenomenon  with  the  cause  that  produces  the 
“November  Meteors,”  or  shooting  stars,  which  have,  of  late, 
excited  so  great  a degree  of  public  attention.  It  appears  highly 
probable  that  these  meteors  derive  their  origin  from  a nebulous 
body  which  revolves  round  the  sun,  and  which,  in  certain  parts 
of  its  course,  comes  very  near  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  be 
within  its  attractive  power;  and  if  such  a body  be  the  source 
whence  these  meteors  proceed,  it  may  also  account  for  the  phe- 
nomenon of  the  zodiacal  light.  The  subject  is  worthy  of  par- 
ticular attention,  and  future  observations  may  not  only  throw 
light  on  this  particular  phenomenon,  but  open  to  our  view  a 
species  of  celestial  bodies  with  which  we  were  formerly  un- 
acquainted. 

Q 


226 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  SECONDARY  PLANETS,  OR  MOONS. 

Haying,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  given  a detailed  account  of 
the  phenomena  connected  with  the  sun  and  the  primary  planets 
of  our  system,  I shall  now  proceed  to  a brief  description  of  what 
is  known  in  reference  to  the  satellites,  or  moons,  which  accom- 
pany several  of  the  primary  planets. 

A secondary  planet,  or  satellite,  is  a body  which  revolves 
around  a primary  planet,  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  and  which 
is  at  the  same  time  carried  along  with  its  primary  round  the 
sun.  The  satellites  form  a system,  in  connexion  with  their 
primaries,  similar  to  that  which  the  planets  form  in  connexion 
with  the  sun.  They  revolve  at  different  distances  from  their 
primaries;  they  are  regulated  according  to  the  laws  of  Kepler, 
formerly  alluded  to;  their  orbits  are  circles,  or  ellipses,  of  very 
moderate  eccentricity;  in  their  motions  around  their  primaries 
they  describe  areas  very  nearly  proportional  to  the  times;  and 
the  squares  of  the  periodical  times  of  all  the  satellites,  belong- 
ing to  each  planet,  are  in  proportion  to  each  other  as  the  cubes 
of  their  distances,  (see  page  39.)  The  planets  around  which 
satellites  have  been  discovered,  are,  the  earth,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  Uranus.  Of  the  satellites  belonging  to  these  bodies  I shall 
present  a brief  sketch  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  here 
mentioned. 

I.  OF  THE  EARTH’S  SATELLITE,  OR  THE  MOON. 

Before  proceeding  to  a particular  description  of  this  noc- 
turnal luminary,  I shall  present  a brief  sketch  of  its  apparent 
motions . 

The  moon,  like  all  the  other  celestial  bodies,  appears  daily  to 
rise  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  to  set  in  the  western  parts  of 
the  horizon.  Its  apparent  motion  in  this  respect  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  sun,  formerly  described,  and  is  owing  to  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth.  Its  real  motion  round  the  earth  is  in 
a contrary  direction — namely,  from  west  to  east,  or  in  the  same 


MOTION  AND  PHASES  OF  THE  MOON.  227 

direction  in  which  all  the  planets  move  round  the  sun.  This 
motion  may  be  traced  every  lunation,  but  more  distinctly  during 
the  spring  months,  when  the  moon,  in  the  first  quarter,  appears 
in  a high  degree  of  north  declination,  and  when  its  crescent  is 
sometimes  visible  within  thirty-six  hours  of  the  change.  About 
this  period,  on  the  second  or  third  day  of  the  moon’s  age,  it  will 
be  seen  in  the  west,  after  sunset,  at  a small  elevation  above  the 
horizon,  and  exhibiting  the  form  of  a slender  crescent.  On  the 
next  evening  it  will  appear  at  a still  higher  elevation  at  the  same 
hour,  having  moved  about  1 3 degrees  further  to  the  east,  and  its 
crescent  will  appear  somewhat  larger.  Every  succeeding  day  it 
will  appear  at  a greater  elevation,  and  further  to  the  east  than 
before,  and  its  crescent  will  appear  larger,  till  about  the  seventh 
or  eighth  day,  when  it  will  be  seen  in  the  south  when  the  sun  is 
setting  in  the  west,  at  which  time  it  assumes  the  appearance  of 
a semicircle,  or  half-moon.  During  this  period,  the  horns  of  the 
crescent  point  towards  the  east,  the  enlightened  part  of  the  lunar 
disk  being  turned  towards  the  sun.  After  the  first  quarter,  or 
the  period  of  half-moon,  the  lunar  orb  still  keeps  on  its  course  to 
the  eastward,  and  the  portion  of  its  enlightened  disk  is  gradually 
enlarged,  till  about  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  moon’s  age,  when  it 
appears  as  a full  enlightened  hemisphere,  and  rises  in  the  east 
about  the  time  when  the  sun  is  setting  in  the  west.  In  this 
position  it  is  said  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  and  passes  the 
meridian  about  midnight.  After  this  period,  the  enlightened 
part  of  its  disk  gradually  diminishes,  and  it  rises  at  a later  hour, 
till,  in  the  course  of  seven  days,  it  is  again  reduced  to  a semi- 
circle, and  is  seen  only  during  one  half  of  the  night.  Some 
nights  after,  it  appears  reduced  to  a crescent,  having  its  points, 
or  horns,  turned  towards  the  west , the  sun  being  then  to  the  east 
of  it.  After  this,  it  rises  but  a little  time  before  the  sun,  and  is 
seen  only  early  in  the  morning;  and  its  crescent  daily  diminishes 
till  it  at  length  disappears,  when  it  rises  at  the  same  time  with 
the  sun;  and  after  having  been  invisible  for  two  or  three  days, 
it  reappears  in  the  evening  in  the  west,  a little  after  sunset. 
During  this  period  the  moon  has  made  a complete  circuit  round 
the  heavens,  from  west  to  east,  which  is  accomplished  in  29 J 
days,  in  which  period  it  passes  through  all  the  phases  now 
described.  The  progressive  motion  from  west  to  east,  every 
day,  may  be  traced,  by  observing  the  stars  which  lie  nearly  in 
the  line  of  the  moon’s  course.  If  a star  be  observed  considerably 
to  the  eastward  of  the  moon,  on  any  particular  evening,  on  the 

Q 2 


228 


ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  MOON’S  PHASES. 


following  evening  it  will  appear  about  thirteen  degrees  nearer 
the  star,  and  will  afterwards  pass  to  the  eastward  of  it,  and  every 
succeeding  day  will  approach  nearer  to  all  the  other  stars  which 
lie  near  the  line  of  its  course  to  the  eastward.  The  reason  why 
the  moon  appears  under  the  different  phases  now  described  will 
appear  from  the  following  figure. 

Fig.  70. 


THE  PHASES  OF  THE  MOON  EXPLAINED. 


229 


In  this  diagram,  S represents  the  sun;  F,  the  Earth;  and  M , 
A,  B , C,  D , F,  G,  H \ the  moon  in  different  positions  in  its  orbit 
round  the  earth.  When  the  moon  is  at  M,  as  seen  from  the 
earth,  her  dark  side  is  completely  turned  to  the  earth,  and  she  is 
consequently  invisible,  as  at  /,  being  nearly  in  the  same  part  of 
the  heavens  with  the  sun.  She  is  in  this  position  at  the  period 
termed  new  moon , when  she  is  also  said  to  be  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun.  When  she  has  moved  from  M to  A,  a small  part  of 
her  enlightened  hemisphere  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  when 
she  appears  in  the  form  of  a crescent , as  at  K . In  moving  from 
A to  B,  a larger  portion  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere  is 
gradually  turned  towards  the  earth,  and  when  she  arrives  at  B , 
the  one- half  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere  is  turned  to  the  earth, 
and  she  assumes  the  figure  of  a half-moon , as  at  L.  When 
arrived  at  C,  she  appears  under  what  is  called  a gibbous  phase, 
as  at  N9  more  than  one  half  of  her  enlightened  disk  being  turned 
to  the  earth.  At  D,  her  whole  enlightened  hemisphere  is  turned 
to  our  view,  and  she  appears  a full  moon , as  at  0.  After 
this  period  she  again  decreases,  turning  every  day  less  and  less 
of  her  enlightened  hemisphere  to  the  earth,  so  that  at  F she 
appears  as  at  P;  at  G , a half-moon  on  the  decline,  as  at  Q;  at 
H,  a crescent,  as  at  R;  and  at  AT,  she  is  again  in  conjunction 
with  the  sun,  when  her  dark  side  is  turned  to  the  earth  as 
before.  The  moon  passes  through  all  these  changes  in  29  days, 
12  hours,  and  44  minutes,  at  an  average,  which  is  termed  her 
synodical  revolution . But  the  time  which  she  takes  in  making 
one  revolution  round  the  earth,  from  a fixed  star  to  the  same 
again,  is  only  27  days,  7 hours,  and  43  minutes,  which  is  called 
her  periodical  revolution . For,  after  one  revolution  is  finished 
she  has  a small  arc  to  describe,  in  order  to  get  between  the  sun 
and  the  earth;  because,  in  consequence  of  the  earth’s  motion  in 
the  same  direction,  the  sun  appears  to  be  advancing  forward  in 
the  ecliptic,  and,  of  course,  the  moon  requires  some  time  to 
overtake  him,  after  having  finished  a revolution.  This  surplus 
of  motion  occupies  2 days,  5 hours,  and  one  minute,  which, 
added  to  the  periodical,  make  the  synodical  revolution,  or  the 
period  between  one  new  or  full  moon  and  another.  This  might 
be  illustrated  by  the  revolution  of  the  hour  and  minute  hands  of 
a watch  or  clock.  Suppose  the  hour  hand  to  represent  the  sun, 
and  a complete  revolution  of  it  to  represent  a year;  suppose  the 
minute-hand  to  represent  the  moon,  and  its  circuit  round  the 
dial-plate,  a month,  it  is  evident  that  the  moon,  or  minute-hand, 


230  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  EARTH  FROM  THE  MOON. 


must  go  more  than  round  the  circle  where  it  was  last  conjoined 
with  the  sun,  or  hour-hand,  before  it  can  again  overtake  it;  if, 
for  example,  they  were  in  conjunction  at  XII.,  the  minute-hand, 
or  moon,  must  make  a complete  revolution  and  above  more 
before  they  can  meet,  a little  past  I. ; for  the  hour-hand  being  in 
motion,  can  never  be  overtaken  by  the  minute-hand  at  that  point 
from  which  they  started  at  their  last  conjunction. 

To  a spectator  placed  on  the  lunar  surface,  the  earth  would 
every  month  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon,  but  in  a reverse 
order  from  what  the  moon  exhibits  to  the  earth  at  the  same 
time.  Thus,  (fig.  70,)  when  the  moon  is  at  Z>,  only  the  dark 
hemisphere  of  the  earth  is  turned  towards  the  moon,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  earth  would  be  then  invisible;  so  that  when  it  is  full 
moon  to  us,  it  is  new  moon  to  a lunar  inhabitant;  as  the  earth 
will  then  be  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  nothing  but  its 
dark  hemisphere  presented  to  view.  When  the  moon  is  at  P,  a 
small  portion  of  the  enlightened  half  of  the  earth  is  turned 
towards  the  moon,  and  it  appears  as  a crescent.  When  she  is  at 
Q,  the  earth  appears  as  a half  moon;  when  at  R,  a gibbous 
phase;  and  when  she  is  at  /,  the  time  of  new  moon  to  us,  the 
earth  then  shines  on  the  dark  side  of  the  moon  with  a full 
enlightened  hemisphere.  It  is  owing  to  this  circumstance,  that 
when  the  new  moon  first  appears  like  a slender  crescent,  her 
dark  hemisphere  is  seen  illuminated  with  a faint  light,  per- 
ceptible even  to  the  naked  eye;  and,  by  the  help  of  a telescope, 
we  are  enabled,  by  this  faint  illumination,  to  distinguish  the 
prominent  spots  on  this  portion  of  the  lunar  disk.  This  faint 
light,  therefore,  is  nothing  else  than  the  moonlight  of  the  moon , 
produced  by  the  earth  shining,  with  nearly  a full  face,  upon  the 
dark  surface  of  the  moon.  And  as  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
thirteen  times  larger  than  the  surface  of  the  moon,  the  light 
reflected  from  the  earth  will  be  nearly  equal  to  that  of  thirteen 
full  moons.  As  the  age  of  the  moon  increases,  this  secondary 
light  is  gradually  enfeebled,  and  after  the  seventh  or  eighth  day 
from  the  change  it  is  seldom  visible.  This  arises  from  the 
diminution  of  the  enlightened  part  of  the  earth,  which  then 
appears  only  like  a half-moon,  approaching  to  a crescent,  and 
consequently  throws  a more  feeble  light  upon  the  moon,  which 
is  the  more  difficult  to  be  perceived  as  the  enlightened  part  of 
the  moon  increases. 

Rotation  of  the  Moon. — While  the  moon  is  performing  her 
revolution  round  the  earth  every  month,  she  is  also  gradually 


THE  MOON  AN  OPAQUE  BODY. 


231 


revolving  round  her  axis;  and  it  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that 
her  revolution  round  her  own  axis  is  performed  in  the  same  time 
as  her  revolution  round  the  earth.  This  is  inferred  from  the 
circumstance,  that  the  moon  always  turns  the  same  face  to  the 
earth , so  that  we  never  see  the  other  hemisphere  of  this  globe. 
For  if  the  moon  had  no  rotation  upon  an  axis , she  would  present 
every  part  of  her  surface  to  the  earth.  This  does  not,  at  first 
sight,  appear  obvious  to  those  who  have  never  directed  their 
attention  to  the  subject.  Any  one,  however,  may  convince 
himself  of  the  fact,  by  standing  in  the  centre  of  a circle,  and 
causing  another  person  to  carry  round  a terrestrial  globe,  without 
turning  it  on  its  axis,  when  he  will  see  every  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  globe  in  succession;  and  in  order  that  one  hemisphere 
only  should  be  presented  to  his  view,  he  will  find  that  the  globe 
will  require  to  be  gradually  turned  round  its  axis,  so  as  to  make 
a complete  rotation,  during  the  time  it  is  carried  round  the 
circle.  The  axis  of  the  moon  is  inclined  88°  29'  to  the  ecliptic, 
so  that  it  is  nearly  perpendicular  to  it.  Although  the  moon 
presents  nearly  the  same  side  to  the  earth  in  all  its  revolutions 
around  it,  yet  there  is  perceived  a certain  slight  variation 
in  this  respect.  When  we  look  attentively  at  the  disk  of  the 
moon  with  a telescope,  we  sometimes  observe  the  spots  on 
her  eastern  limb,  which  were  formerly  visible,  concealed 
behind  her  disk,  while  others  appear  on  her  western  limb  which 
were  not  seen  before.  The  spots  which  appear  on  her  western 
limb  withdraw  themselves  behind  the  limb,  while  the  spots  which 
were  concealed  behind  the  eastern  limb  again  appear.  The 
same  phenomena  are  observed  in  the  north  and  south  limb  of 
the  moon,  so  that  the  spots  sometimes  change  their  positions 
about  three  minutes  on  the  moon’s  disk,  or  about  the  eleventh 
part  of  her  diameter.  This  is  termed  the  lihration  of  the  moon — 
the  one  her  libration  in  longitude , and  the  other,  her  libration  in 
latitude . 

From  what  we  have  stated  above,  in  relation  to  the  phases 
and  motions  of  the  moon,  it  is  evident  that  the  moon  is  a dark 
body,  like  the  earth,  and  derives  all  its  light  from  the  sun;  for 
its  enlightened  side  is  always  turned  towards  that  luminary.  It 
likewise  derives  a faint  light  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun’s  rays 
from  the  earth,  and  in  the  same  way  as  we  derive  a mild  light 
from  the  moon.  And  as  the  earth  has  an  uneven  surface,  com- 
posed of  mountains  and  vales,  so  the  moon  is  found  to  be  diver- 
sified with  similar  inequalities.  It  is  owing  to  these  inequalities, 


232  DTSTANCE  OF  THE  MOON  FROM  THE  EARTH. 


or  the  roughness  of  the  moon’s  surface,  that  the  light  of  the  sun 
is  reflected  from  it  in  every  direction ; for,  if  the  surface  of  the 
moon  were  perfectly  smooth,  like  a polished  globe  or  speculum, 
her  orb  would  be  invisible  to  us;  except,  perhaps,  at  certain 
times,  when  the  image  of  the  sun,  reflected  from  it,  would  appear 
like  a bright  lucid  point.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing experiment.  Place  a silver  globe,  perfectly  polished,  about 
two  inches  diameter,  in  the  sun;  the  rays  which  fall  upon  it  being 
reflected  variously,  according  to  their  several  incidences,  upon 
the  convex  surface,  will  come  to  our  eye  only  from  one  point  of 
the  globe,  which  will  therefore  appear  a small  bright  spot,  but 
the  rest  of  the  surface  will  appear  dark.  Let  this  globe  then  be 
boiled  in  the  liquor  used  for  whitening  silver,  and  placed  in  the 
sun;  it  will  appear  in  its  full  dimensions  all  over  luminous;  for 
the  effect  of  that  liquor  is  to  take  off  the  smoothness  of  the 
polish,  and  make  the  surface  rough,  and  then  every  point  of  it 
will  reflect  the  rays  of  light  in  every  direction. 

The  moon  is  the  nearest  to  the  earth  of  all  the  celestial  bodies, 
and  is  a constant  attendant  upon  it  at  all  seasons.  Her  distance 
from  the  centre  of  the  earth  is,  in  round  numbers,  240,000  miles, 
or  somewhat  less  than  a quarter  of  a million;  which  is  little  more 
than  the  fourth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun.  Small  as  this 
distance  is  compared  with  that  of  the  other  planets,  it  would 
require  500  days,  or  sixteen  months  and  a half,  for  a steam -car- 
riage to  move  over  the  interval  which  separates  us  from  the 
lunar  orb,  although  it  were  moving  day  and  night  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  every  hour.  In  her  motion  round  the  earth  every 
month,  she  pursues  her  course  at  the  rate  of  2300  miles  an 
hour.  But  she  is  carried  at  the  same  time,  along  with  the  earth, 
round  the  sun  every  year,  so  that  her  real  motion  in  space  is 
much  more  rapid  than  what  has  now  been  stated.  For  while  she 
accompanies  the  earth  in  its  motion  round  the  sun — which  is  at 
the  rate  of  68,000  miles  an  hour — she  also  moves  thirteen  times 
round  the  earth,  during  the  same  period,  which  is  equal  to  a 
course  of  nearly  twenty  millions  of  miles. 

The  moon’s  orbit  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  in  an  angle  of  5°  9'; 
so  that,  in  one  part  of  her  course,  she  is  above,  and  in  another 
below,  the  level  of  the  earth’s  orbit.  It  is  owing  to  this  circum- 
stance that  this  orb  is  not  eclipsed  at  every  full  moon,  and  the 
sun  at  every  new  moon,  which  would  regularly  happen  did  the 
moon  move  in  an  orbit  exactly  coincident  with  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic.  The  moon’s  orbit,  of  course,  crosses  the  orbit  of 


ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 


233 


the  earth  in  two  opposite  points,  called  her  nodes ; and  it  is  only 
when  the  new  or  full  moon  happens  at  or  near  these  nodes  that 
an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  moon  can  take  place;  for  it  is  only  when 
she  is  in  such  a position  that  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  earth 
are  nearly  in  a straight  line,  and  that  the  shadow  of  the  one  can 
fall  upon  the  other.  The  shadow  of  the  moon  falling  upon  any 
part  of  the  earth  produces  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and  the  shadow 
of  the  earth  falling  upon  the  moon  causes  an  eclipse  of  the  moon. 
An  eclipse  of  the  moon  can  only  take  place  at  full  moon , when 
the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  the  moon;  and  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  can  only  happen  at  new  moon , when  the  moon  comes  between 
the  sun  and  the  earth.  Lunar  eclipses  are  visible  in  all  parts  of 
the  earth  which  have  the  moon  above  their  horizon,  and  are 
everywhere  of  the  same  magnitude  and  duration;  but  a solar 
eclipse  is  never  seen  throughout  the  whole  hemisphere  of  the 
earth  where  the  sun  is  visible;  as  the  moon’s  disk  is  too  small  to 
hide  the  whole,  or  any  part,  of  the  sun  from  the  whole  disk  or 
hemisphere  of  the  earth.  Nor  does  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  appear 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  where  it  is  visible,  but  when  in 
one  place  it  is  total,  in  another  it  is  only  partial. 

The  moon’s  orbit,  like  those  of  the  other  planets,  is  in  the  form 
of  an  ellipse , the  eccentricity  of  which  is  12,960  miles,  or  about 
ijy  part  of  its  longest  diameter.  The  moon  is,  therefore,  at  dif- 
ferent distances  from  the  earth  in  different  parts  of  her  orbit. 
When  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  earth,  she  is  said  to  be 
in  her  apogee  ; when  at  the  least  distance,  in  her  perigee.  The 
nearer  the  moon  is  to  the  periods  of  full , or  change,  the  greater 
is  her  velocity ; and  the  nearer  to  the  quadratures,  or  the  periods 
of  half  moon,  the  slower  she  moves.  When  the  earth  is  in  its 
perihelion , or  nearest  the  sun,  the  periodical  time  of  the  moon  is 
the  greatest.  The  earth  is  at  its  perihelion  in  winter,  and  con- 
sequently, at  that  time  the  moon  will  describe  the  largest  circle 
about  the  earth,  and  her  periodical  time  will  be  the  longest. 
But  when  the  earth  is  in  its  aphelion , or  farthest  from  the  sun, 
which  happens  in  summer,  she  will  describe  a smaller  circle,  and 
her  periodical  time  will  be  the  least — all  which  circumstances 
are  found  to  agree  with  observation.  These,  and  many  other 
irregularities  in  the  motion  of  this  orb,  which  it  would  be  too 
tedious  to  particularize,  arise  from  the  attractive  influence  of  the 
sun  upon  the  lunar  orb,  in  different  circumstances,  and  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  its  course,  so  as  to  produce  different  degrees  of 
accelerated  and  retarded  motion.  The  irregularities  of  the 


234 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  MOON’S  SURFACE. 


moon’s  motion  have  frequently  puzzled  astronomers  and  mathe- 
maticians, and  they  render  the  calculations  of  eclipses  and  of  her 
true  place  in  the  heavens  a work  of  considerable  labour.  No 
less  than  thirty  equations  require  to  be  applied  to  the  mean 
longitude  in  order  to  obtain  the  true , and  about  twenty-four 
equations  for  her  latitude  and  parallax.  But,  to  enter  minutely 
into  such  particulars  would  afford  little  satisfaction  to  general 
readers. 

Description  of  the  surface  of  the  Moon  as  seen  through  tele- 
scopes. — Of  all  the  celestial  bodies,  the  telescopic  view  of  the 
moon  presents  the  most  interesting  and  variegated  appearance. 
We  perceive,  as  it  were,  a map,  or  model  of  another  world,  re- 
sembling in  some  of  its  prominent  features  the  world  in  which 
we  dwell,  but  differing  from  it  in  many  of  its  minute  arrange- 
ments. It  bears  a certain  analogy  to  the  earth  in  some  of  the 
mountains  and  vales  which  diversify  its  surface;  but  the  general 
form  and  arrangement  of  these  elevations  and  depressions,  and 
the  scenery  they  will  present  to  a spectator  on  the  lunar  surface, 
are  very  different  from  what  we  behold  in  our  terrestrial  land- 
scapes. When  we  view  the  moon  with  a good  telescope,  when 
about  three  days  old,  we  perceive  a number  of  elliptical  spots, 
with  slight  shadows,  evidently  indicating  elevations  and  depres- 
sions; we  also  perceive  a number  of  bright  specks  or  studs  in 
the  dark  hemisphere,  immediately  adjacent  to  the  enlightened 
crescent,  and  the  boundary  between  the  dark  and  the  enlightened 
portion  of  the  disk  appears  jagged  and  uneven.  At  this  time, 
too,  we  perceive  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  covered  with  a faint 
light;  so  that  the  whole  circular  outline  of  the  lunar  hemisphere 
may  be  plainly  discerned.  When  we  take  a view  of  the  lunar 
surface,  at  the  period  of  half  moon,  we  behold  a greater  variety 
of  objects,  and  the  shadows  of  the  mountains  and  caverns  appear 
larger  and  more  prominent.  This  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  time 
for  taking  a telescopic  view  of  the  surface  of  the  moon.  When 
we  view  her  when  advanced  to  a gibbous  phase,  we  see  a still 
greater  extent  of  surface,  but  the  shadows  of  the  different  objects 
are  shorter  and  less  distinct.  At  the  time  of  full  moon,  no 
shadows,  either  of  the  mountains  or  caverns,  are  perceptible,  but 
a variety  of  dark  and  bright  streaks  and  patches  appear  distri- 
buted in  different  shapes  over  all  its  surface.  If  we  had  no  other 
view  of  the  moon  but  at  this  period,  we  should  scarcely  be  able 
to  determine  whether  mountains  and  vales  existed  on  this  orb. 
The  view  of  the  full  moon,  therefore,  however  beautiful  and 


LUNAR  MOUNTAINS. 


235 


variegated,  can  give  us  no  accurate  idea  of  the  mountains,  vales, 
caverns,  and  other  geographical  arrangements  which  diversify 
its  surface. 

Lunar  Mountains . — That  the  surface  of  the  moon  is  diversified 
with  mountains,  or  high  elevations,  is  evident  from  an  inspection 
of  its  disk,  even  with  a common  telescope.  They  are  recognised 
from  various  circumstances.  1.  From  the  appearance  of  the 
boundary  which  separates  the  dark  from  the  enlightened  hemi- 
sphere of  the  moon.  This  boundary  is  not  in  a straight  line  or 
a regular  curve,  as  it  would  be  if  the  moon  were  a perfectly 
smooth  globe,  but  uniformly  presents  an  uneven  or  jagged  appear- 
ance, cut,  as  it  were,  into  numerous  notches  and  breaks,  some- 
what resembling  the  teeth  of  a saw,  which  appearance  can  only 
be  produced  by  elevations  and  depressions  on  the  lunar  surface, 
(see  fig.  71.)  2.  Adjacent  to  the  boundary  between  light  and 

darkness,  and  within  the  dark  part  of  the  moon,  there  are  seen, 
in  almost  every  stage  of  the  moon’s  increase  and  decrease,  a 
number  of  shining  points , like  stars,  completely  separated  from 
the  enlightened  part,  and  sometimes  other  small  spaces  or  streaks, 
which  join  to  the  enlightened  surface,  but  run  out  into  the  dark 
side,  which  gradually  change  their  figure,  till  at  length  they  come 
wholly  within  the  enlightened  boundary.  These  shining  points 
or  streaks  are  ascertained  to  be  the  tops  or  highest  ridges  of 
mountains  which  the  sun  first  enlightens  before  his  rays  can 
reach  the  valleys, — just  as  the  beams  of  the  rising  sun  irradiate 
our  mountain  tops,  before  the  lower  parts  of  the  landscape  are 
enlightened.  3.  The  shadows  of  the  mountains,  when  they  are 
fully  enlightened,  are  distinctly  seen  near  the  border  of  the 
illuminated  part  of  the  moon,  as  the  shadows  of  elevated  objects 
are  seen  on  the  terrestrial  landscape.  These  shadows  are  longest, 
and  most  distinctly  marked,  about  the  time  of  half  moon ; and 
they  grow  shorter  as  the  lunar  orb  advances  to  the  period  of  full 
moon,  in  the  same  way  as  the  shadows  of  terrestrial  objects,  in 
summer,  gradually  shorten  as  the  sun  approaches  the  meridian. 
These  considerations  demonstrate,  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt, 
that  mountains  of  very  considerable  altitude,  and  in  vast  variety 
of  forms,  abound  in  almost  every  region  of  the  moon. 

The  lunar  mountains,  in  general,  exhibit  an  arrangement  and 
an  aspect  very  different  from  the  mountain  scenery  of  our  globe. 
They  may  be  arranged  into  the  four  following  varieties: — 
1 . Insulated  mountains , which  rise  from  plains  nearly  level,  like 
a sugar  loaf  placed  on  a table,  and  which  may  be  supposed  to 


236 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  LUNAR  MOUNTAINS. 


present  an  appearance  somewhat  similar  to  Mount  Etna,  or  the 
Peak  of  TenerifF.  The  shadows  of  these  mountains,  in  certain 
phases  of  the  moon,  are  as  distinctly  perceived  as  the  shadow  of 
an  upright  staff  when  placed  opposite  to  the  sun ; and  their  heights 
can  be  calculated  from  the  lengths  of  their  shadows.  The  heights, 
and  the  length  of  the  base,  of  more  than  seventy  of  these 
mountains  have  been  calculated  by  M.  Schroeter,  who  had  long 
surveyed  the  lunar  surface  with  powerful  telescopes,  and  who, 
some  time  ago,  published  the  result  of  his  observations  in  a work 
entitled  “ Fragments  of  Selenography.”  Thirty  of  these  insulated 
mountains  are  from  2 to  5 miles  in  perpendicular  height;  thirteen 
are  above  4 miles;  and  about  forty  are  from  ^ of  a mile  to  2 
miles  in  altitude.  The  length  of  their  bases  varies  from  Si- 
miles to  96  miles  in  extent.  Some  of  these  mountains  will 
present  a very  grand  and  picturesque  prospect  around  the  plains 
in  which  they  stand.  2.  Ranges  of  mountains , extending  in 
length  two  or  three  hundred  miles.  These  ranges  bear  a distant 
resemblance  to  our  Alps,  Apennines,  and  Andes,  but  they  are 
much  less  in  extent,  and  do  not  form  a very  prominent  feature 
of  the  lunar  surface.  Some  of  them  appear  very  rugged  and 
precipitous,  and  the  highest  ranges  are,  in  some  places,  above 
four  miles  in  perpendicular  altitude.  In  some  instances,  they 
run  nearly  in  a straight  line  from  north-east  to  south-west,  as 
in  that  range  called  the  Apennines ; in  other  cases,  they  assume 
the  form  of  a semicircle,  or  a crescent.  3 . Another  class  of  the 
lunar  mountains  is, — the  circular  ranges  which  appear  on  almost 
every  part  of  the  moon’s  surface,  particularly  in  its  southern 
regions.  This  is  one  of  the  grand  peculiarities  of  the  lunar 
ranges,  to  which  we  have  nothing  similar  in  our  terrestrial 
arrangements.  A plain,  and  sometimes  a large  cavity,  is  sur- 
rounded with  a circular  ridge  of  mountains,  which  encompasses 
it  like  a mighty  rampart.  These  annular  ridges  and  plains  are 
of  all  dimensions,  from  a mile  to  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  diameter, 
and  are  to  be  seen  in  great  numbers  over  every  region  of  the 
moon’s  surface.  The  mountains  which  form  these  ridges  are  of  dif- 
ferent elevations,  from  \ of  a mile  to  3|  miles  in  altitude,  and  their 
shadows  sometimes  cover  the  one-half  of  the  plain.  These  plains 
are  sometimes  on  a level  with  the  general  surface  of  the  moon,  and 
in  other  cases  they  are  sunk  a mile  or  more  below  the  level  of  the 
ground  which  surrounds  the  exterior  circle  of  the  mountains.  In 
some  of  these  circular  ridges  I have  perceived  a narrow  pass  or 
opening,  as  if  intended  to  form  an  easy  passage  or  communication 


LUNAR  MOUNTAINS. 


237 


between  the  interior  plain  and  the  regions  beyond  the  exterior  of 
the  mountains.  4.  The  next  variety  is  the  central  mountains , or 
those  which  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  circular  plains.  In  many 
of  the  plains  and  cavities,  surrounded  by  annular  mountains, 
there  is  an  insulated  mountain  which  rises  from  the  centre  of 
the  plain,  and  whose  shadow  sometimes  extends,  in  a pyramidal 
form,  across  the  semi-diameter  of  the  plain  to  the  opposite  ridges. 
These  central  mountains  are  generally  from  half  a mile  to  a mile 
and  a half  in  perpendicular  altitude.  In  some  instances  they 
have  two  and  sometimes  three  separate  tops,  whose  distinct 
shadows  can  be  easily  distinguished.  Sometimes  they  are 
situated  towards  one  side  of  the  plain  or  cavity,  but,  in  the  great 
majority  of  instances,  their  position  is  nearly  or  exactly  central. 
The  lengths  of  their  bases  vary  from  five  to  about  fifteen  or 
sixteen  miles. 

The  following  figures  may,  perhaps,  convey  a rude  idea  of 
some  of  the  objects  now  described;  but  it  is  impossible,  by  any 
delineations,  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  peculiarities  and  the  vast 
variety  of  the  scenery  which  the  lunar  surface  presents,  such  as 
is  exhibited  by  a powerful  telescope,  during  the  different  stages 
of  the  increase  and  decrease  of  the  moon. 

Fig.  71  represents  the  moon  in  a crescent  phase,  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  how  the  enlightened  tops  of  the  mountains 
appear  on  the  dark  part  of  the  moon,  detached  as  it  were  from 
the  enlightened  part,  and  likewise  to  show  how  the  boundary 
between  light  and  darkness  appears  jagged  and  uneven,  indi- 
cating the  existence  of  elevations  and  depressions  upon  its  sur- 
face. Fig.  72  represents  a circular  or  elliptical  range  of  moun- 
tains, surrounding  a plain  of  the  same  shape,  where  the  shadow 
of  that  side  of  the  range  which  is  opposite  to  the  sun  appears 
covering  the  half  of  the  plain.  Fig.  73  represents  a circular 
plain,  with  the  shadow  of  one  side  of  the  mountains  which  encom- 
passes it,  and  a central  mountain  with  its  shadow  in  the  same 
direction.  Fig.  74  exhibits  another  of  these  circular  ridges  and 
plains.  Several  hundreds  of  these  circular  cavities  and  plains 
are  distributed  over  the  lunar  surface,  but  they  are  most  abundant 
in  the  southern  regions. 

Fig.  75  exhibits  a pretty  correct  view  of  the  full  moon,  as  seen 
through  a telescope  magnifying  above  a hundred  times,  in  which 
the  darker  shades  represent,  for  the  most  part,  the  level  portions 
of  the  moon’s  surface  and  the  lighter  shades  those  which  are  more 
elevated  or  mountainous.  The  bright  spot  near  the  bottom,  from 


238 


VARIETIES  ON  THE  LUNAR  SURFACE. 


TELESCOPIC  VIEW  OF  THE  FULL  MOON. 


239 


Fig.  75. 


North . 


which  streaks  or  streams  of  light  seem  to  proceed,  is  called  Tyclio 
by  some,  and  Mount  Etna  by  others.  It  consists  of  a large  irre- 
gular cavity,  surrounded  by  mountains;  and  the  streaks  of  light 
are  the  elevated  ridges  of  ranges  of  mountains,  which  seem  to 
converge  towards  it  as  to  a centre.  This  is  the  most  variegated 
and  mountainous  region  of  the  lunar  surface.  Figs.  76  and  77 
afford  some  general  views  of  portions  of  the  disk  of  the  moon 
adjacent  to  the  boundary  which  separates  the  dark  from  the  en- 
lightened side.  They  would,  however,  require  to  be  engraved 
on  a much  larger  scale  than  our  page  admits  to  show  distinctly 
the  elevations  and  depressions  at  the  boundary  between  light  and 
darkness. 

From  what  has  been  now  stated  respecting  the  lunar  mourn 
tains,  it  will  evidently  appear  that  there  must  be  a great  variety 
of  sublime  and  picturesque  scenery  connected  with  the  various 
landscapes  of  the  moon.  If  the  surface  of  that  orb  be  adorned 
with  a diversity  of  colour,  and  with  something  analogous  to  the 


240 


PICTURESQUE  SCENERY  OF  THE  MOON. 


vegetation  of  our  globe,  there  must  be  presented  to  the  view  of 
the  spectator  in  the  moon  a variety  of  scenes  altogether  dissimilar 
to  those  which  we  can  contemplate  on  this  earth.  The  circular 
plains  and  mountains  will  present  three  or  four  varieties  of 
prospect,  of  which  we  have  no  examples  on  our  globe.  In  the 
first  place,  a spectator,  near  the  middle  of  the  plane,  will  behold 
his  view  bounded  on  every  hand  by  a chain  of  lofty  mountains, 
at  the  distance  of  5,  10,  15,  or  twenty  miles,  according  to  the 
diameter  of  the  plain;  and  as  the  tops  of  these  mountains  are  at 
different  elevations,  they  will  exhibit  a variety  of  mountain 
scenery.  In  the  next  place,  when  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
central  mountain,  the  whole  plain,  with  its  diversified  objects, 
will  be  open  to  his  view,  which  will  likewise  take  in  all  the 
variety  of  objects  connected  with  the  circular  mountain-range 
which  bounds  his  prospect.  A third  variety  of  view  will  be  pre- 
sented in  travelling  round  the  plain,  where  the  various  aspects 
of  the  central  mountain  will  present,  at  every  stage,  a new 
landscape,  and  a diversity  of  prospect.  Another  view,  still  more 
extensive,  will  be  obtained  by  ascending  to  the  summit  of  the 
circular  range,  where  the  whole  plain  and  its  central  mountain 
will  be  full  in  view,  and  a prospect  will,  at  the  same  time,  be 
opened  of  a portion  of  those  regions  which  lie  beyond  the 
exterior  boundary  of  the  mountains,  (see  fig.  73.)  A diversity 
of  scenery  will  likewise  be  presented  by  the  shadows  of  the 
circular  range  and  the  central  mountain.  When  the  sun  is  in 
the  horizon,  the  whole  plain  will  be  enveloped  in  the  shadows  of 
the  mountains,  even  after  daylight  begins  to  appear.  These 
shadows  will  grow  shorter  and  shorter  as  the  sun  rises  in  the 
heavens;  but  a space  of  time,  equal  to  one  or  two  of  our  days, 
will  intervene,  before  the  body  of  the  sun  be  seen  from  the 
opposite  side  of  the  plain,  rising  above  the  mountain  tops;  and  a 
still  longer  space  of  time  before  his  direct  rays  be  seen  at  the 
opposite  extremity.  These  shadows  are  continually  varying; 
during  the  increase  of  the  moon  they  are  thrown  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  during  the  decrease  in  a direction  exactly  opposite; 
and  it  is  only  about  the  time  of  full  moon  that  every  part  of  the 
plain,  and  the  mountains  which  surround  it,  are  fully  enlightened, 
and  the  shadows  disappear.  There  must,  therefore,  be  a far 
greater  variety  of  sublime  mountain  scenery,  and  of  picturesque 
objects  connected  with  it,  on  the  lunar  surface,  than  what  is 
presented  to  our  view  in  terrestrial  landscapes. 

The  Lunar  Caverns . — These  form  a very  peculiar  and 


K 


242 


VIEWS  OF  THE  LUNAR  SURFACE 


Fig.  76. 


VIEWS  OF  THE  LUNAR  SURFACE 


243 


LUNAR  CAVITIES. 


245 


prominent  feature  of  the  moon’s  surface,  and  are  to  be  seen 
throughout  almost  every  region;  but  are  most  numerous  in  the 
south-west  part  of  the  moon.  Nearly  a hundred  of  them,  great 
and  small,  may  be  distinguished  in  that  quarter.  They  are  all 
nearly  of  a circular  shape,  and  appear  somewhat  like  a very 
shallow  egg  cup.  The  smaller  cavities  appear,  within,  almost 
like  a hollow  cone,  with  the  sides  tapering  towards  the  centre; 
but  the  larger  ones  have,  for  the  most  part,  flat  bottoms,  from 
the  centre  of  which  there  frequently  rises  a small  steep  conical 
hill,  which  gives  them  a resemblance  to  the  annular  ridges  and 
central  mountains  above  described.  In  some  instances,  their 
margins  are  level  with  the  general  surface  of  the  moon,  but,  in 
most  cases,  they  are  encircled  with  a high  annular  ridge  of 
mountains,  marked  with  lofty  peaks.  Some  of  the  larger  of 
these  cavities  contain  smaller  cavities  of  the  same  kind  and  form, 
particularly  in  their  sides.  The  mountainous  ridges  which 
surround  these  cavities  reflect  the  greatest  quantity  of  light; 
and  hence,  that  region  of  the  moon  in  which  they  abound  appears 
brighter  than  any  other.  From  their  lying  in  every  possible 
direction,  they  appear,  at  and  near  the  time  of  full  moon,  like  a 
number  of  brilliant  streaks  or  radiations.  These  radiations 
appear  to  converge  towards  a large  brilliant  spot,  surrounded 
with  a faint  shade,  near  the  lower  part  of  the  moon,  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Tycho , and  which  every  one  who  views 
the  full  moon,  even  with  a common  telescope,  may  easily  dis- 
tinguish. In  regard  to  their  dimensions , they  are  of  all  sizes, 
from  three  miles  to  fifty  miles  in  diameter  at  the  top;  and  their 
depth,  below  the  general  level  of  the  lunar  surface,  varies  from 
one-third  of  a mile  to  three  miles  and  a half.  Twelve  of  these 
cavities,  as  measured  by  Schroeter,  were  found  to  be  above  two 
miles  in  perpendicular  depth.  These  cavities  constitute  a peculiar 
feature  in  the  scenery  of  the  moon,  and  in  her  physical  constitu- 
tion, which  bears  scarcely  any  analogy  to  what  we  observe  in 
the  physical  arrangements  of  our  globe.  But,  however  different 
such  arrangements  may  appear  from  what  we  see  around  us  in 
the  landscapes  of  the  earth,  and  however  unlikely  it  may  at  first 
sight  appear  that  such  places  should  be  the  abodes  of  intelligent 
beings,  I have  no  doubt  that,  in  point  of  beauty,  variety,  and 
sublimity,  these  spacious  hollows,  with  all  their  assemblage  of 
circular  and  central  mountain-scenery,  will  exceed  in  interest 
and  grandeur  any  individual  scene  we  can  contemplate  on  our 
globe.  W e have  only  to  conceive  that  such  places  are  diversified 


246 


VOLCANOES  IN  THE  MOON. 


and  adorned  with  all  the  vegetable  scenery  which  we  reckon 
beautiful  and  picturesque  in  a terrestrial  landscape,  and  with 
objects  which  are  calculated  to  reflect  with  brilliancy  the  solar 
rays,  in  order  to  give  us  an  idea  of  the  grandeur  of  the  scene. 
And  that  the  objects  connected  with  these  hollows  are  formed 
of  substances  fitted  to  reflect  the  rays  of  the  sun  with  peculiar 
lustre,  appears  from  the  brilliancy  which  most  of  them  exhibit 
when  either  partially  or  wholly  enlightened;  presenting  to  view, 
especially  at  full  moon,  the  most  luminous  portions  of  the  lunar 
surface,  so  that  former  astronomers  were  led  to  compare  them 
to  rocks  of  diamond. 

Whether  there  he  any  Evidence  of  Volcanoes  in  the  Moon . — 
From  a consideration  of  the  broken  and  irregular  ground,  and 
the  deep  caverns  which  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  moon’s 
surface,  several  astronomers  were  led  to  conjecture  that  such 
irregularities  were  of  volcanic  origin.  These  conjectures  were 
supposed  to  be  confirmed  by  the  appearance  of  certain  luminous 
points,  which  were  occasionally  seen  on  the  dark  part  of  the 
moon.  During  the  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  the  24th  of 
June,  1778,  Don  Ulloa  perceived,  near  the  north-west  limb  of 
the  moon,  a bright  white  spot,  which  he  imagined  to  be  the  light 
of  the  sun  shining  through  an  opening  in  the  moon.  This 
phenomenon  continued  about  a minute  and  a quarter,  and  was 
noticed  by  three  different  observers.  Beccaria  observed  a similar 
spot  in  1772.  M.  Bode,  of  Berlin,  M.  de  Villeneuve,  M.  Nouet, 
Captain  Kater,  and  several  others,  at  different  times,  perceived 
similar  phenomena,  some  of  which  had  the  appearance  of  a small 
nebula,  or  a star  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  upon  the  dark  part  of 
the  lunar  disk.  Sir  W.  Herschel,  in  1787,  observed  similar 
phenomena,  which  he  ascribes  to  the  eruption  of  volcanoes.  The 
following  is  an  extract  from  his  account  of  those  phenomena: — 
“ April  19th,  1787,  10h  36'.  I perceive  three  volcanoes  in 
different  places  of  the  dark  part  of  the  new  moon.  Two  of 
them  are  already  nearly  extinct,  or  otherwise  in  a state  of  going 
to  break  out;  the  third  shows  an  eruption  of  fire  or  luminous 
matter.  The  distance  of  the  crater  from  the  northern  limb  of 
the  moon  is  3'  57'';  its  light  is  much  brighter  than  the  nucleus 
of  the  comet  which  M.  Mechain  discovered  at  Paris  on  the  10th 
of  this  month.”  “April  20,  10h.  The  volcano  burns  with 
greater  violence  than  last  night;  its  diameter  cannot  be  less 
than  three  seconds;  and  hence  the  shining  or  burning  matter 
must  be  above  three  miles  in  diameter.  The  appearance  re- 


NO  PROOFS  OF  LUNAR  VOLCANOES.  247 

sembles  a small  piece  of  burning  charcoal,  when  it  is  covered 
by  a very  thin  coat  of  white  ashes,  and  it  had  a degree  of  bright- 
ness about  as  strong  as  that  with  which  such  a coal  would  be 
seen  to  glow  in  faint  day-light.” 

Such  are  some  of  the  phenomena  from  which  it  has  been  con- 
cluded that  volcanoes  exist  in  the  moon.  That  such  appearances 
indicate  the  existence  of  fire  or  some  species  of  luminosity  on 
the  lunar  surface,  is  readily  admitted;  but  they  by  no  means 
prove  that  anything  similar  to  terrestrial  volcanoes  exists  in 
that  orb.  We  err  egregiously  when  we  suppose  that  the 
arrangements  of  other  worlds  must  be  similar  to  those  on  our 
globe,  especially  when  we  perceive  the  surface  of  the  moon 
arranged  in  a manner  so  very  different  from  that  of  the  earth. 
We  have  no  right  to  conclude  that  burning  mountains  abound 
in  the  moon,  because  these  are  the  only  large  streams  of  fire 
that  occasionally  burst  forth  from  certain  points  on  our  globe. 
For  there  are  many  other  causes  of  which  we  are  ignorant,  and 
which  may  be  peculiar  to  the  moon,  which  may  produce  the 
occasional  gleams  or  illuminations  to  which  we  allude.  The 
conflagration  of  a large  forest,  such  as  happened  a few  years 
ago  at  Miramichi,  the  blazing  of  large  tracts  of  burning  heath, 
the  illumination  of  a large  town,  or  the  conflagration  of  such  a 
city  as  Moscow,  would,  in  all  probability,  present  to  a spectator 
in  the  moon,  luminous  specks,  such  as  those  which  astronomers 
have  observed  on  the  dark  portion  of  the  lunar  orb.  Such  lumi- 
nosities in  the  moon  may  possibly  be  of  a phosphoric  nature,  or 
a mere  display  of  some  brilliant  artificial  scenery  by  the  inha- 
bitants of  that  planet.  Schroeter  is  of  opinion  that  most  of 
these  appearances  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  light  reflected  from 
the  earth  to  the  dark  part  of  the  moon’s  disk,  which  returns  it 
from  the  tops  of  the  mountains  under  various  angles,  and  with 
different  degrees  of  brightness;  and  from  various  observations  I 
have  made  on  the  dark  portion  of  the  moon,  when  about  two  or 
three  days  old,  and  from  the  degree  of  brightness  with  which 
some  of  the  small  spots  have  frequently  appeared,  I am  disposed 
to  consider  this  opinion  as  highly  probable. 

The  existence  of  volcanoes  on  our  globe  is  scarcely  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a part  of  its  original  constitution.  Such  appalling  and 
destructive  agents  appear  altogether  inconsistent  with  the  state 
of  an  innocent  being  formed  after  the  Divine  image;  and,  there- 
fore, we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  they  existed  in  the  primi- 
tive age  of  the  world,  while  man  remained  in  his  paradisiacal 


248 


NO  LARGE  SEAS  IN  THE  MOON. 


state,  but  began  to  operate  only  after  the  period  of  the  universal 
deluge,  when  the  primitive  constitution  of  our  globe  was  altered 
and  deranged,  and  when  earthquakes,  storms,  and  tempests  began, 
at  the  same  time,  to  exert  their  destructive  energies.  They  are 
thus  to  be  considered  as  an  evidence  or  indication  that  man  is  no 
longer  in  a state  of  moral  perfection,  and  that  his  habitation  now 
corresponds  with  his  character  as  a sinner.  To  suppose,  there- 
fore, that  such  destructive  agents  exist  in  the  moon,  would  be 
virtually  to  admit  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  planet  are  in  the 
same  depraved  condition  as  the  inhabitants  of  this  world.  The 
same  thing  may  be  said  with  regard  to  a pretended  discovery 
which  was  announced  some  years  ago,  that  “ there  are  fortifica- 
tions in  the  moon;”  for,  if  such  objects  really  existed,  it  would 
be  a plain  proof  that  the  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  wars  and 
contentions,  and  animated  with  the  same  diabolical  principles  of 
pride,  ambition,  and  revenge,  which  have  ravaged  our  globe  and 
demoralized  its  inhabitants. 

Whether  there  he  Seas  in  the  Moon  is  a question  which  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  astronomers,  and  which  demands  a few 
remarks.  When  we  view  the  moon  through  a good  telescope,  we 
perceive  a number  of  large  dark  spots,  of  different  dimensions, 
some  of  which  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  These  spots,  in  the 
early  observations  of  the  moon  with  telescopes,  were  generally 
supposed  to  be  large  collections  of  water,  similar  to  our  seas,  and 
the  names  given  them  by  Hevelius,  such  as  Mare  Crisium , Mare 
Imhrium , fyc.,  are  founded  on  this  opinion.  The  general  smooth- 
ness of  these  obscure  regions,  and  the  consideration  that  water 
reflects  less  light  than  the  land,  induced  some  astronomers  to 
draw  this  conclusion.  But  there  appears  no  solid  ground  for 
entertaining  such  an  opinion;  for,  in  the  first  place,  when  these 
dark  spots  are  viewed  with  good  telescopes,  they  are  found  to 
contain  numbers  of  cavities,  whose  shadows  are  distinctly  per- 
ceived falling  within  them,  which  can  never  happen  in  a sea,  or 
smooth  liquid  body;  and  besides,  several  insulated  mountains, 
whose  shadows  are  quite  perceptible,  are  found  here  and  there 
in  these  supposed  seas.  In  the  next  place,  when  the  boundary 
of  light  and  darkness  passes  through  these  spots,  it  is  not  exactly 
a straight  line,  or  a regular  curve,  as  it  ought  to  be,  were  those 
parts  perfectly  level,  like  a sheet  of  water,  but  appears  slightly 
jagged  or  uneven.  I have  inspected  these  spots  hundreds  of  times, 
with  powers  of  150,  180,  and  230  times,  and  in  every  instance, 
and  in  every  stage  of  the  moon’s  increase  and  decrease,  gentle 


ATMOSPHERE  OF  THE  MOON. 


249 


elevations  and  depressions  were  seen,  similar  to  the  wavings,  or 
inequalities  which  are  perceived  upon  a plain  or  country  gene- 
rally level.  There  are  scarcely  any  parts  of  these  spots  in  which 
slight  elevations  may  not  be  seen.  In  many  of  them  the  light 
and  shade,  indicating  inequality  of  surface,  are  quite  perceptible; 
and  in  certain  parts,  ridges  nearly  parallel,  of  slight  elevation, 
with  interjacent  plains,  are  distinctly  visible.  These  dark  spots, 
therefore,  must  be  considered  as  extensive  plains  diversified  with 
gentle  elevations  and  depressions,  and  consisting  of  substances 
calculated  to  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun  with  a less  degree  of  inten- 
sity than  the  other  parts  of  the  lunar  surface.  These  plains  are 
of  different  dimensions,  from  40  or  50  to  700  miles  in  extent,  and 
they  occupy  more  than  one-third  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon 
which  is  seen  from  the  earth,  and,  consequently,  will  contain 
nearly  three  millions  of  square  miles.  As  the  moon,  therefore, 
is  diversified  with  mountains  and  cavities,  of  forms  altogether  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  our  globe,  so  the  plains  upon  the  surface  of  that 
orb  are  far  more  varied  and  extensive  than  the  generality  of  plains 
which  are  found  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is  a globe  diver- 
sified with  an  immense  variety  of  mountain  scenery,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  abounding  with  plains  and  valleys  of  vast  extent. 
But  there  appear  to  be  no  seas,  oceans,  or  any  large  collections  of 
water;  though  it  is  possible  that  small  lakes,  or  rivers,  may  exist 
on  certain  parts  of  its  surface.  As  we  see  only  one  side  of  the 
moon  from  the  earth,  we  cannot  tell  what  objects  or  arrangements 
may  exist  on  its  opposite  hemisphere,  though  it  is  probable  that 
that  hemisphere  does  not  differ  materially  in  its  scenery  and 
arrangements  from  those  which  are  seen  on  the  side  which  is 
turned  towards  the  earth. 

Atmosphere  of  the  Moon . — Whether  the  moon  has  an  atmo- 
sphere, or  body  of  air,  similar  to  that  which  surrounds  the  earth, 
has  been  a subject  of  dispute  among  astronomers.  On  the  one  side, 
the  existence  of  such  an  atmosphere  is  denied,  because  the  stars 
which  disappear  behind  the  body  of  the  moon  retain  their  full 
lustre  till  they  seem  to  touch  its  very  edge,  and  then  they  vanish 
in  a moment;  which  phenomenon,  it  is  supposed,  would  not 
happen  if  the  moon  were  encompassed  with  an  atmosphere.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained,  that  the  phenomena  fre- 
quently attending  eclipses  of  the  sun  furnish  arguments  for  the 
existence  of  a lunar  atmosphere.  It  has  been  observed,  on  dif- 
ferent occasions,  that  the  moon,  in  a solar  eclipse,  was  surrounded 
with  a luminous  ring,  which  was  most  brilliant  on  the  side 


250 


PROBABILITY  OF  A LUNAR  ATMOSPHERE. 


nearest  the  moon, — that  the  sharp  horns  of  the  solar  crescent 
have  been  seen  blunted  at  their  extremities  during  total  dark- 
ness,— that,  preceding  the  immersion,  a long  narrow  streak  of 
dusky  red  light  has  been  seen  to  colour  the  western  limb  of  the 
moon,  and  that  the  circular  figure  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the 
fixed  stars,  has  been  seen  changed  into  an  elliptical  one  when 
they  approached  either  the  dark  or  the  enlightened  limb  of  the 
moon;  all  which  circumstances  are  considered  as  indications  of 
a lunar  atmosphere.  The  celebrated  M.  Schroeter,  of  Lilienthal, 
made  numerous  observations  in  order  to  determine  this  ques- 
tion, and  many  respectable  astronomers  are  of  opinion  that  his 
observations  clearly  prove  the  existence  of  an  atmosphere  around 
the  moon.  He  discovered,  near  the  moon’s  cusps,  a faint  grey 
light  of  a pyramidal  form,  extending  from  both  cusps  into  the 
dark  hemisphere,  which  being  the  moon’s  twilight,  must  neces- 
sarily arise  from  its  atmosphere.  It  would  be  too  tedious  to 
detail  all  the  observations  of  Schroeter  on  this  point;  but  the 
following  are  the  general  conclusions: — “That  the  inferior  or 
more  dense  part  of  the  moon’s  atmosphere  is  not  more  than  1500 
English  feet  high;  and  that  the  height  of  the  atmosphere  where 
it  could  affect  the  brightness  of  a fixed  star,  or  inflect  the  solar 
rays,  does  not  exceed  5742  feet,”  or  little  more  than  an  English 
mile.  A fixed  star  will  pass  over  this  space  in  less  than  two 
seconds  of  time;  and  if  it  emerge  at  a part  of  the  moon’s  limb 
where  there  is  a ridge  of  mountains,  scarcely  any  obscuration  can 
be  perceptible. 

On  the  whole,  it  appears  most  probable  that  the  moon  is 
surrounded  with  a fluid  which  serves  the  purpose  of  an  atmo- 
sphere; although  this  atmosphere,  as  to  its  nature,  composition, 
and  refractive  power,  may  be  very  different  from  the  atmosphere 
which  surrounds  the  earth.  It  forms  no  proof  that  the  moon, 
or  any  of  the  planets,  is  destitute  of  an  atmosphere,  because  its 
constitution,  its  density,  and  its  power  of  refracting  the  rays  of 
light  are  different  from  ours.  An  atmosphere  may  surround  a 
planetary  body,  and  yet  its  parts  be  so  fine  and  transparent  that 
the  rays  of  light,  from  a star  or  any  other  body,  may  pass  through 
it  without  being  in  the  least  obscured,  or  changing  their  direction. 
In  our  reasonings  on  this  subject,  we  too  frequently  proceed  on  the 
false  principle,  that  everything  connected  with  other  worlds  must 
bear  a resemblance  to  those  on  the  earth.  But  as  we  have  seen 
that  the  surface  of  the  moon,  in  respect  to  its  mountains,  caverns, 
and  plains,  is  very  differently  arranged  from  what  appears  on  the 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  MOON. 


251 


landscape  of  our  globe,  so  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  that 
the  atmosphere  with  which  that  orb  may  be  surrounded  is  mate- 
rially different,  in  its  constitution  and  properties,  from  that  body 
of  air  in  which  we  move  and  breathe;  and  it  is  highly  probable, 
from  the  diversity  of  arrangements  which  exist  throughout  the 
planetary  system,  that  the  atmospheres  of  all  the  planets  are 
variously  constructed,  and  have  properties  different  from  each 
other.  Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  moon’s  atmosphere, 
it  is  evident  that  nothing  similar  to  clouds  exists  in  it,  otherwise 
they  would  be  quite  perceptible  by  the  telescope;  and  hence 
we  may  conclude,  that  neither  hail,  snow,  rain,  nor  tempests, 
disturb  its  serenity;  for  all  the  parts  uniformly  present  a clear, 
calm,  and  serene  aspect,  as  if  its  inhabitants  enjoyed  a perpetual 
spring. 

Magnitude  of  the  Moon . — The  distance  of  the  moon  from  the 
earth  is  determined  from  its  horizontal  parallax;  and  this  distance, 
compared  with  its  apparent  angular  diameter,  gives  its  real  or 
linear  diameter.  The  mean  horizontal  parallax  is  57  minutes, 
34  seconds,  and  the  mean  apparent  diameter  31  minutes,  26 
seconds.  From  these  data , it  is  found  that  the  real  diameter  of 
the  moon  is  2180  miles,  which  is  little  more  than  the  one-fourth 
of  the  diameter  of  the  earth.  The  real  magnitude  of  the  moon, 
therefore,  is  only  about  one-forty-ninth  part  of  that  of  the  earth. 
This  is  found  by  dividing  the  cube  of  the  earth’s  diameter  by 
the  cube  of  the  moon’s,  and  the  quotient  will  express  the  number 
of  times  that  the  bulk  of  the  earth  exceeds  that  of  the  moon; 
for  the  real  bulk  of  globes  is  in  proportion  to  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters.  Although  the  apparent  size  of  the  moon  appears 
equal  to  that  of  the  sun,  yet  the  difference  of  their  real  bulk  is 
very  great,  for  it  would  require  more  than  sixty  three  millions 
of  globes  of  the  size  of  the  moon  to  form  a globe  equal  in  mag- 
nitude to  that  of  the  sun.  Its  surface,  notwithstanding,  contains 
a very  considerable  area,  comprising  nearly  15  millions  of  square 
miles,  or  about  one-third  of  the  habitable  parts  of  our  globe;  and 
were  it  as  densely  peopled  as  England,  it  would  contain  a popu- 
lation amounting  to  four  thousand  two  hundred  millions , which 
is  more  than  five  times  the  population  of  the  earth;  so  that  the 
moon,  although  it  ranks  among  the  smallest  of  the  celestial  bodies, 
may  contain  a population  of  intelligent  beings  far  more  numerous, 
and  perhaps  far  more  elevated  in  the  scale  of  intellect,  than  the 
inhabitants  of  our  globe. 

Whether  it  may  he  possible  to  discover  the  inhabitants  of  the 


252 


LUNAR  INHABITANTS. 


moon  is  a question  which  has  been  sometimes  agitated.  To  such 
a question  I have  no  hesitation  in  replying  that  it  is  highly  im- 
probable that  we  shall  ever  obtain  a direct  view  of  any  living 
beings  connected  with  the  moon  by  means  of  any  telescopes 
which  it  is  in  the  power  of  man  to  construct.  The  greatest 
magnifying  power  which  has  ever  been  applied,  with  distinctness , 
to  the  moon,  does  not  much  exceed  a thousand  times;  that  is, 
makes  the  objects  in  the  moon  appear  a thousand  times  larger 
and  nearer  than  to  the  naked  eye.  But  even  a power  of  a thou- 
sand times  represents  the  objects  on  the  lunar  surface  at  a dis- 
tance of  240  miles,  at  which  distance  no  living  beings,  although 
they  were  nearly  of  the  size  of  a Kraken,  could  be  perceived. 
Even  although  we  could  apply  a power  of  ten  thousand  times, 
lunar  objects  would  still  appear  at  24  miles  distant;  and  at  such 
a distance,  no  animal,  even  of  the  size  of  an  elephant  or  a whale, 
could  be  discerned.  Besides,  we  ought  to  consider  that  we  have 
only  a birds  eye  view  of  the  objects  on  the  moon;  and,  conse- 
quently, supposing  any  beings  resembling  man  to  exist  on  that 
orb,  we  could  only  perceive  the  diameter  of  their  heads,  as  an 
aeronaut  does  when  he  surveys  the  crowds  beneath  him  from  an 
elevated  balloon.  Nay,  though  it  were  possible  to  construct  a 
telescope  with  the  power  of  one  hundred  thousand  times,  which 
would  cause  the  moon  to  appear  as  if  only  miles  distant,  it  is 
doubtful  if  even  with  such  an  instrument  living  beings  could  be 
perceived.  We  ought  also  to  consider,  that  nature  has  set  cer- 
tain limits  to  the  magnifying  power  of  telescopes.  For,  although 
we  could  apply  such  powers  as  now  stated  to  any  telescope,  the 
vapours  and  undulations  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth,  would  interpose  a barrier  to  distinct  vision; 
and  as  the  quantity  of  light  is  diminished  in  proportion  to  the 
magnifying  power,  the  loss  of  light  in  such  high  powers  would 
prevent  the  distinct  perception  of  any  object. 

But  although  we  can  never  hope  to  see  any  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  moon,  by  any  instrument  constructed  by  human  inge- 
nuity, yet  we  may  be  able  to  trace  the  operations  of  sentient  or 
intelligent  beings,  or  those  effects  which  indicate  the  agency  of 
living  beings.  A navigator  who  approaches  within  a certain 
distance  of  a small  island,  although  he  perceive  no  human  beings 
upon  it,  can  judge  with  certainty  that  it  is  inhabited,  if  he  per- 
ceive human  habitations,  villages,  corn-fields,  or  other  traces  of 
cultivation.  In  like  manner,  if  we  could  perceive  changes  or 
operations  in  the  moon,  which  could  be  traced  to  the  agency  of 


LUNAR  INHABITANTS. 


253 


intelligent  beings,  we  should  then  obtain  demonstrative  evidence 
that  such  beings  exist  on  that  planet;  and  I have  no  doubt  that 
it  is  possible  to  trace  such  operations.  A telescope  which  mag- 
nifies 1200  times  will  enable  us  to  perceive,  as  a visible  ; point , on 
the  surface  of  the  moon,  an  object  whose  diameter  is  only  about 
100  yards  or  300  feet.  Such  an  object  is  not  larger  than  many 
of  our  public  edifices;  and,  therefore,  were  any  such  edifices 
rearing  in  the  moon,  or  were  a town  or  city  extending  its 
boundaries,  or  were  operations  of  this  description  carrying  on  in 
a district  where  no  such  edifices  had  previously  been  erected, 
such  objects  and  operations  might  probably  be  detected  by  a 
minute  inspection.  Were  a multitude  of  living  creatures  moving 
from  place  to  place  in  a body,  or  were  they  encamping  in  an  ex- 
tensive plain,  like  a large  army,  or  like  a tribe  of  Arabs  in  the 
desert,  and  afterwards  removing;  it  is  possible  that  such  move- 
ments might  be  traced,  by  the  difference  of  shade  or  colour  which 
such  movements  would  produce.  In  order  to  detect  such  minute 
objects  and  operations,  it  would  be  requisite  that  the  surface  of 
the  moon  should  be  distributed  among,  at  least,  a hundred  astro- 
nomers, each  having  a spot  or  two  allotted  him  as  the  object 
of  his  more  particular  investigation,  and  that  the  observations 
be  continued  for  a period  of,  at  least,  thirty  or  forty  years, 
during  which  time  certain  changes  would  probably  be  perceived, 
arising  either  from  physical  causes,  or  from  the  operations  of 
living  agents.  But  although  no  such  changes  should  ever  be 
detected,  it  would  form  no  proof  that  the  moon  is  destitute  of 
inhabitants;  for,  in  other  worlds,  intelligent  beings  may  pro- 
bably enjoy  all  the  happiness  congenial  to  their  natures  without 
those  edifices,  or  artificial  accommodations,  which  are  requisite  for 
man  in  this  terrestrial  abode.  In  reference  to  the  subject  under 
consideration,  Dr.  Olbers  is  fully  of  opinion  “ that  the  moon  is 
inhabited  by  rational  creatures,  and  that  its  surface  is  more  or 
less  covered  with  a vegetation  not  very  dissimilar  to  that  of  our 
own  earth.”  Gruithuisen  maintains  that  he  has  discovered,  by 
means  of  his  large  achromatic  telescope,  “ great  artificial  works 
in  the  moon,  erected  by  the  lunarians.”  And  lately,  another 
foreign  observer  maintains,  from  actual  observation,  “ that  great 
edifices  do  exist  in  the  moon.”  I am  of  opinion  that  all  such 
announcements  are  premature  and  uncertain.  Without  calling 
in  question  the  accuracy  of  the  descriptions  published  by  these 
astronomers,  there  is  some  reason  to  suspect  that  what  they  have 
taken  for  “ edifices”  and  “ artificial  works”  are  only  small  portions 


254 


PRETENDED  DISCOVERIES  ON  THE  MOON. 


of  natural  scenery,  of  which  an  immense  variety,  in  every  shape, 
is  to  be  found  on  the  surface  of  the  moon.  Future  and  more 
minute  observations  may,  however,  enable  us  to  form  a definite 
opinion  on  this  subject.* 

* A short  time  ago,  a hoax  was  attempted  to  be  played  off  on  the  public,  in 
relation  to  this  subject.  An  article  entitled  “ Wonderful  Discoveries  in  the  Moon, 
by  Sir  John  Herschel,”  was  copied  into  most  of  the  American,  French,  and 
British  newspapers,  and  other  periodicals,  and  was  likewise  published  in  a 
separate  pamphlet.  It  is  not  a little  astonishing  how  easily  the  public  is  gulled 
by  such  extravagant  descriptions  as  were  contained  in  this  pamphlet,  and  it 
show's  the  ignorance  which  still  prevails  among  the  great  mass  of  the  commu- 
nity in  every  country,  in  relation  to  astronomy  and  optics,  that  such  pretended 
discoveries  should  have  been  listened  to  even  for  a moment.  For  even  some 
editors  of  newspapers  treated  the  affair  in  a grave  manner,  and  only  expressed 
their  doubts  on  the  subject — plainly  indicating  that  they  had  far  less  knowledge 
of  the  science  of  astronomy  than  many  schoolboys  now  acquire.  The  title  of 
the  pamphlet  wTas  sufficient  to  convince  any  man  of  common  understanding, 
who  directed  his  attention  for  a moment  to  the  subject,  that  the  whole  was  a 
piece  of  deception ; for  it  stated  that  “ the  object-glass  weighed  seven  tons,” 
and  had  “a  magnifying  power  of  42,000  times.”  Now,  supposing  that  such  a 
power  had  been  used,  the  objects  on  the  surface  of  the  moon  would  still  have 
appeared  more  than  five  miles  and  two-thirds  distant ; and  how  could  an  animal, 
even  of  the  largest  size,  be  seen  at  such  a distance  ? Yet  the  writer  of  the  pam- 
phlet declares  that  animals,  such  as  sheep,  and  cranes,  and  small  birds,  were 
not  only  distinguished,  but  the  shape  and  colour  of  their  horns,  eyes,  beard,  and 
the  difference  of  sexes  were  perceived.  To  perceive  such  objects  it  was  requisite 
that  they  should  have  been  brought  within  six  yards,  instead  of  six  miles.  The 
author  might  have  rendered  his  description  more  consistent  by  putting  a power  of 
tt00,000  times  upon  his  imaginary  telescope — since  he  had  every  power  at  his  com- 
mand— so  as  to  have  brought  the  objects,  at  least,  within  the  distance  of  a mile. 
The  author  of  this  deception,  I understand,  is  a young  man  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  who  makes  some  pretensions  to  scientific  acquirements,  and  he  may  perhaps 
be  disposed  to  congratulate  himself  on  the  success  of  his  experiment  on  the 
public.  But  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  that  all  such  attempts  to  deceive  are 
violations  of  the  law  of  the  Creator,  who  is  the  “ God  of  truth,”  and  who  requires 
“truth  in  the  inward  parts, ” and  therefore,  they  who  wilfully  and  deliberately  con- 
trive such  impositions,  ought  to  be  ranked  in  the  class  of  liars  and  deceivers.  The 
“ Law  of  Truth ” ought  never  for  a moment  to  be  sported  with.  On  the  universal 
observance  of  this  law  depend  the  happiness  of  the  whole  intelligent  system,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  throne  of  the  Eternal.  The  greater  part  of  the  evils 
which  have  afflicted  our  world  have  arisen  from  a violation  of  this  law,  and 
w ere  it  to  be  universally  violated,  the  inhabitants  of  all  wrorlds  would  be  thrown 
into  a state  of  confusion  and  misery,  and  creation  transformed  into  a chaos. 
Besides,  the  propagation  of  such  deceptions  is  evidently  injurious  to  the  interests 
of  science.  For  when  untutored  minds  and  the  mass  of  the  community  detect 
such  impositions,  they  are  apt  to  call  in  question  the  real  discoveries  of  science, 
as  if  they  were  only  attempts  to  impose  on  their  credulity.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  author  of  the  deception  to  which  I have  adverted,  as  be  advances  in  years 
and  in  wisdom,  will  perceive  the  folly  and  the  immorality  of  such  eonduct. 


CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  MOON. 


255 


It  has  sometimes  been  a subject  of  speculation  whether  it 
might  be  possible,  by  any  symbols,  to  correspond  with  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  moon.  “ Gruithuisen,  in  a conversation  with  the 
great  continental  astronomer,  Gauss,  after  describing  the  regular 
figures  he  had  discovered  in  the  moon,  spoke  of  the  possibility 
of  a correspondence  with  the  lunar  inhabitants.  He  brought  to 
Gauss’s  recollection  the  idea  he  had  communicated  many  years 
ago  to  Zimmerman.  Gauss  answered,  that  the  plan  of  erecting 
a geometrical  figure  on  the  plains  of  Siberia  corresponded  with 
his  opinion,  because,  according  to  his  view,  a correspondence 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon  could  only  be  begun  by  means 
of  such  mathematical  contemplations  and  ideas  which  we  and 
they  must  have  in  common.”*  W ere  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon 
to  recognise  such  a figure — erected  on  an  immense  scale — as  a 
signal  of  correspondence,  they  might  perhaps  erect  a similar  one 
in  reply.  But  it  is  questionable  whether  the  intention  of  such  a 
signal  would  be  recognised;  and  our  terrestrial  sovereigns  are 
too  much  engaged  in  plunder  and  warfare  to  think  of  spending 
their  revenues  in  so  costly  an  experiment;  and,  therefore,  it  is 
likely  that,  for  ages  to  come,  we  shall  remain  in  ignorance  of  the 
genius  of  the  lunar  inhabitants.  Schemes,  however,  far  more 
foolish  and  preposterous  than  the  above,  have  been  contrived  and 
acted  upon,  in  every  age  of  the  world.  The  millions  which  are 
now  wasted  in  the  pursuits  of  mad  ambition  and  destructive  war- 
fare might,  with  far  greater  propriety,  be  expended  in  construct- 
ing a large  triangle  or  ellipsis,  of  many  miles  in  extent,  in  Siberia 
or  any  other  country,  which  might  at  the  same  time  accommodate 
thousands  of  inhabitants,  who  are  now  roaming  the  deserts  like 
the  beasts  of  the  forest. 

Whatever  may  be  the  arrangements  of  the  moon,  or  the  genius 
of  its  inhabitants,  we  know  that  it  forms  a most  beautiful  and 
benefieial  appendage  to  our  globe.  When  the  sun  has  descended 
below  the  western  horizon,  the  moon  lights  up  her  lamp  in  the 
azure  firmament,  and  diffuses  a mild  radiance  over  the  landscape 
of  the  world.  She  pours  her  lustre  on  spacious  cities  and  lofty 
mountains,  glittering  on  the  ocean,  the  lakes,  and  rivers,  and 
opening  a prospect  wide  as  the  eye  can  reach,  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  involved  in  the  deepest  gloom.  As  the  son 
of  Sirach  has  observed — •“  She  is  the  beauty  of  heaven,  the  glory 
of  the  stars,  an  ornament  giving  light  in  the  high  places  of  the 


Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal,  for  October,  182G,  p.  390. 


256 


BENEFICIAL  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MOON. 


Lord.”  She  cheers  the  traveller  in  his  journeys,  the  shepherd 
while  tending  his  fleecy  charge,  and  the  mariner  while  conduct- 
ing his  vessel  at  midnight  through  the  boisterous  ocean.  She 
returns  to  us,  during  night,  a portion  of  the  solar  light  which  we 
had  lost,  and  diffuses  a brilliancy  far  superior  to  that  which  we 
derive  from  all  the  stars  of  heaven.  If  we  intend  to  prosecute 
our  journeys,  after  the  sun  has  left  our  hemisphere,  the  moon,  in 
her  increase,  serves  as  a magnificent  lamp  to  guide  our  footsteps. 
If  we  wish  to  commence  our  progress  at  an  early  hour  in  the 
morning,  the  moon,  in  her  decrease,  diffuses  a mild  radiance  in 
the  east,  and  enables  us  to  anticipate  the  dawn;  and,  if  we  choose 
to  defer  our  journey  till  the  period  of  full  moon,  this  celestial 
lamp  enables  us  to  enjoy,  as  it  were,  an  uninterrupted  day  of 
twenty-four  hours  long.  By  this  means,  we  can  either  avoid 
the  burning  heats  of  summer,  or  despatch  such  business  as  may 
be  inexpedient  during  the  light  of  day.  While  the  apparent 
revolution  of  the  sun  marks  out  the  year  and  the  course  of  the 
seasons,  the  revolution  of  the  moon  round  the  heavens  marks  out 
our  months;  and  by  regularly  changing  its  figure  at  the  four 
quarters  of  its  course,  subdivides  the  months  into  two  periods  of 
weeks  and  thus  exhibits  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  a “ watch- 
light,”  or  signal,  which,  every  seven  days,  presents  a form 
entirely  new,  for  marking  out  the  shorter  periods  of  duration. 
By  its  nearness  to  the  earth,  and  the  consequent  increase  of  its 
gravitating  power,  it  produces  currents  in  the  atmosphere,  which 
direct  the  course  of  the  winds,  and  purify  the  aerial  fluid  from 
noxious  exhalations;  it  raises  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  per- 
petuates the  regular  returns  of  ebb  and  flow,  by  which  the  liquid 
element  is  preserved  from  filth  and  putrefaction.  It  extends  its 
sway  even  over  the  human  frame,  and  our  health  and  disorders 
are  sometimes  partially  dependent  on  its  influence.  Even  its 
eclipses,  and  those  it  produces  of  the  sun,  are  not  without  their 
use.  They  tend  to  arouse  mankind  to  the  study  of  astronomy, 
and  the  wonders  of  the  firmament;  they  serve  to  confirm  the  de- 
ductions of  chronology — to  direct  the  navigator — and  to  settle 
the  geographical  positions  of  towns  and  countries;  they  assist  the 
astronomer  in  his  celestial  investigations,  and  exhibit  an  agree- 
able variety  of  phenomena  in  the  scenery  of  the  heavens.  In 
short,  there  are  terrestrial  scenes  presented  in  moon-light,  which, 
in  point  of  solemnity,  grandeur,  and  picturesque  beauty,  far  sur- 
pass in  interest,  to  a poetic  imagination,  all  the  brilliancy  and 
splendours  of  noon-day.  Hence,  in  all  ages,  a moonlight  scene 


BENEFITS  DERIVED  FROM  THE  MOON. 


257 


has  been  regarded,  by  all  ranks  of  men,  with  feelings  of  joy  and 
sentiments  of  admiration.  The  following  description  of  Homer, 
translated  into  English  verse  by  Pope,  has  been  esteemed  one  of 
the  finest  night-pieces  in  poetry: 

“ Beliold  the  moon,  refulgent  lamp  of  night, 

O’er  Heaven’s  clear  azure  spreads  her  sacred  light, 

When  not  a breath  disturbs  the  deep  serene, 

And  not  a cloud  o’ercasts  the  solemn  scene ; 

Around  her  throne  tbe  vivid  planets  roll, 

And  stars  unnumbered  gild  the  glowing  pole ; 

O’er  the  dark  trees  a yellower  verdure  shed, 

And  tip  with  silver  every  mountain’s  head ; 

Then  shine  the  vales  ; the  rocks  in  prospect  rise  ; 

A flood  of  glory  bursts  from  all  the  skies ; 

The  conscious  swains,  rejoicing  in  the  sight, 

Eye  the  blue  vault,  and  bless  the  useful  light.” 

Without  the  light  of  the  moon,  the  inhabitants  of  the  polar 
regions  would  be  for  weeks  and  months  immersed  in  darkness. 
But  the  moon,  like  a kindly  visitant,  returns  at  short  intervals, 
in  the  absence  of  the  sun,  and  cheers  them  with  her  beams  for 
days  and  weeks  together.  So  that,  in  this  nocturnal  luminary, 
as  in  all  the  other  arrangements  of  nature,  we  behold  a display 
of  the  paternal  care  and  beneficence  of  that  Almighty  Being  who 
ordained  “ the  moon  and  the  stars  to  rule  the  night,”  as  an  evi- 
dence of  his  superabundant  goodness,  and  of  “ his  mercy,  which 
endureth  for  ever.” 

II.  ON  THE  SATELLITES  OF  JUPITER. 

There  are  four  moons,  or  satellites,  attending  the  planet 
Jupiter,  which  revolve  around  it  from  west  to  east,  according  to 
the  order  of  the  signs,  or  in  the  same  direction  as  the  moon 
revolves  round  the  earth,  and  the  planets  round  the  sun.  They 
are  placed  at  different  distances  from  the  centre  of  Jupiter;  they 
revolve  round  it  in  different  periods  of  time,  and  they  accompany 
the  planet  in  its  twelve  years’  revolution  round  the  sun,  without 
deviating  in  the  least  in  their  distances  from  the  planet,  as  the 
more  immediate  centre  of  their  motions.  These  bodies  were 
discovered  by  Galileo,  who  first  applied  the  telescope  to  celestial 
observations.  Three  of  them  were  first  seen  on  the  night  of  the 
7th  of  January,  1610,  and  were  at  first  supposed  to  be  telescopic 
stars;  but  by  the  observations  of  three  or  four  subsequent  even- 
ings, he  discovered  them  to  be  attendants  on  the  planet  Jupiter. 

s 


258 


DISTANCES  OF  JUPITER’S  SATELLITES. 


On  the  13th  of  the  same  month,  he  saw  the  fourth  satellite,  and 
continued  his  observations  till  March  2nd,  when  he  sent  his 
drawings  of  them,  and  an  account  of  his  observations,  to  his 
patron,  Cosmo  Medici , Great  Duke  of  Tuscany;  in  honour  of 
whom,  he  called  them  the  Medicean  stars . This  discovery  soon 
excited  the  attention  of  astronomers,  and  every  one  hasted  with 
eagerness  to  view  the  new  celestial  wonders.  The  senators  of 
Venice,  who  were  eminent  for  their  learning,  invited  Galileo  to 
come  to  the  tower  of  St.  Mark,  and,  in  their  presence,  make  a 
trial  of  his  new  instruments.  He  complied  with  their  request, 
and,  in  a fine  night,  neither  cold  nor  cloudy,  showed  them  with 
his  instrument  the  new  phenomena  which  had  excited  attention 
— the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  the  crescent  of  Venus,  the  triple  ap- 
pearance of  Saturn,  and  the  inequalities  on  the  surface  of  the 
Moon — which  many  of  the  learned  refused  to  admit,  because  they 
overthrew  the  system  of  the  schools,  and  the  philosophical  notions 
which  had  previously  prevailed.  At  this  conference  with  the 
Venetian  senators,  Galileo  demonstrated  the  truth  of  the  Coper- 
nican  system,  and  showed  how  all  his  discoveries  had  a tendency 
to  prove  that  the  earth  is  a moving  body,  and  that  the  sun  is  the 
centre  of  the  planetary  motions. 

The  following  are  the  respective  distances  of  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  in  round  numbers,  and  the  periodic  times  in  which  they 
revolve  around  that  planet.  The  mean  distance  of  the  first 
satellite  from  the  centre  of  Jupiter  is  260,000  miles,  or  somewhat 
more  than  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth;  and  it  re- 
volves around  the  planet  in  1 day,  18  hours,  27^  minutes.  The 
second  satellite  is  distant  420,000  miles,  and  finishes  its  revolu- 
tion in  3 days,  13  hours,  13f  minutes.  The  third  is  distant 
670,000  miles,  and  performs  its  revolution  in  7 days,  3 hours, 
42-^  minutes.  The  fourth  satellite  is  distant  1,180,000  miles,  or 
more  than  four  times  the  distance  of  the  first,  and  requires  16 
days,  16  hours,  and  32  minutes,  to  complete  its  revolution.  These 
satellites  suffer  numerous  eclipses,  in  passing  through  the  shadow 
of  J upiter,  as  our  moon  is  eclipsed  in  passing  through  the  shadow 
of  the  earth.  But  as  their  orbits  are  very  little  inclined  to  the 
orbit  of  Jupiter,  their  eclipses  are  much  more  frequent  than  those 
of  our  moon.  The  first  three  satellites  are  eclipsed  every  time 
they  are  in  opposition  to  the  sun.  The  first  satellite  is  in  oppo- 
sition once  in  42J  hours,  and  consequently  suffers  an  eclipse 
about  eighteen  times  every  month.  The  second  suffers  eight  or 
nine  eclipses,  and  the  third  about  four  eclipses  every  month. 


views  of  Jupiter’s  satellites.  259 

But  the  fourth  satellite  frequently  passes  through  its  opposition 
without  being  involved  in  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  and,  con- 
sequently, its  eclipses  are  less  frequent  than  those  of  the  other 
three,  only  a few  of  them  happening  in  the  course  of  a year. 
As  those  satellites  are  opaque  globes,  like  our  moon — when  they 
are  in  their  inferior  conjunction,  or  in  a line  between  Jupiter 
and  the  sun — their  bodies  are  interposed  between  the  sun  and 
certain  parts  of  the  disk  of  the  planet,  so  as  to  cause  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  to  those  places  over  which  their  shadow  passes. 
These  eclipses,  or  the  shadows  of  the  satellites  passing  across 
the  body  of  Jupiter,  are  perceived  by  powerful  telescopes. 
Sometimes  the  satellites  themselves  may  be  seen  crossing  the 
disk  like  luminous  spots;  and  sometimes  the  body  of  the  planet 
interposes  between  our  eye  and  the  satellites,  when  they  are 
said  to  suffer  an  occultation.  It  has  been  ascertained,  by  the 
calculations  and  investigations  of  La  Place,  that  the  whole 
number  of  these  moons  can  never  be  eclipsed  at  the  same  time , 
and  that  scarcely  ever  more  than  two  of  them  can  be  eclipsed 
at  once. 

The  following  diagram  (fig.  78)  exhibits  the  system  of  Jupiter’s 
satellites,  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  their  distances  from  the 
planet.  The  small  circles  on  the  orbit  of  the  third  satellite  re- 
present the  enlightened  side  of  the  satellites  turned  toward  the 
sun,  and  the  dark  side  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  enlightened 
side  of  every  satellite  is  always  very  nearly  turned  towards  the 
earth;  but  in  their  revolutions  round  Jupiter  they  present  to  that 
planet  all  the  phases  of  the  moon,  as  represented  in  the  figures 
marked  on  the  orbit  of  the  fourth  satellite.  In  the  direction,  A, 
when  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  they  appear  like  full  moons;  in 
the  direction,  B,  they  assume  a gibbous  phase;  at  C,  they  appear 
like  a half -moon;  at  D , like  a crescent;  at  A,  the  dark  side  being 
turned  towards  the  planet,  the  satellite  becomes  invisible;  at  Fy 
G , and  H , it  again  successively  appears  under  a crescent,  a half- 
moon, and  a gibbous  phase.  In  the  direction  A,  the  satellites 
are  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  as  seen  from  Jupiter,  at  which  time 
they  pass  through  his  shadow,  and  are  eclipsed  for  the  space  of 
more  than  two  hours,  with  the  exception  of  the  fourth,  which 
sometimes  passes  the  point  of  its  opposition  without  falling  into 
the  shadow.  At  E , the  shadow  of  the  satellite  passes  across  the 
disk  of  Jupiter,  producing  a solar  eclipse  to  all  those  regions  on 
his  surface  over  which  the  shadow  moves. 

s 2 


260 


views  of  jupiter’s  satellites. 


Fig.  78. 


APPARENT  MOTIONS  OF  THESE  SATELLITES.  261 


These  satellites,  when  viewed  from  the  earth,  do  not  appear 
to  revolve  round  Jupiter  in  the  manner  here  represented,  but 
seem  to  oscillate  backwards  and  forwards  nearly  in  a straight  line. 
This  is  owing  to  our  eye  being  nearly  on  a level  with  the  plane 
of  their  orbits.  When  the  earth  is  in  one  of  the  geocentric  nodes 
of  a satellite,  the  plane  of  its  orbit  passes  through  our  eye,  and 
therefore  it  appears  to  be  a straight  line,  as  a b , (fig.  79,)  so  that 
in  passing  the  half  of  its  orbit  which  is  most  distant  from  the 
earth,  it  first  seems  to  move  from  b to  c,  when  it  is  hid  for  some 
time  by  the  planet,  and  then  from  d to  a,  the  point  of  its  greatest 
elongation ; after  which,  it  seems  to  return  again  in  the  same  line, 
passing  between  us  and  the  disk  of  the  planet,  till  it  arrive  at  its 
greatest  elongation,  at  b.  In  every  other  situation  of  the  earth, 
the  orbit  of  a satellite  appears  as  an  ellipsis  more  or  less  oblong, 
as  represented  fig.  80.  When  it  passes  through  its  superior 
semicircle,  or  that  which  is  more  distant  from  the  earth  than 
Jupiter  is,  as  e,f  g , its  motion  is  direct , or  according  to  the 
order  of  the  signs;  when  it  is  in  its  inferior  semicircle,  nearer 
to  us  than  Jupiter,  as  h , i,  k,  its  apparent  motion  is  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  or  retrograde.  Hence  these  satellites,  as  seen 
through  a telescope,  appear  nearly  in  a straight  line  from  the 
body  of  Jupiter,  as  represented  fig.  81. 

Magnitude  of  the  Satellites . — These  bodies,  though  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  are  nevertheless  of  a considerable  size.  The 
following  are  their  diameters  in  miles,  as  stated  by  Struve.  The 
first  satellite  is  2508  miles  diameter,  which  is  considerably  larger 
than  our  moon.  The  second  is  2068  miles  diameter,  or  about 
the  size  of  the  moon.  The  third  is  3377  miles  diameter,  which 
is  more  than  seven  times  the  bulk  of  the  moon.  The  fourth  is 
2890  miles  diameter,  or  about  three  times  the  bulk  of  the  moon; 
so  that  the  whole  of  Jupiter’s  satellites  are  equal  to  nearly 
thirteen  of  our  moons.*  The  superficial  contents  of  the  first 
satellite  is  19,760,865  square  miles;  of  the  second,  13,435,442; 
of  the  third,  35,827,211;  and  of  the  fourth,  26,238,957  square 
miles.  The  number  of  square  miles  on  all  the  satellites  is,  there- 
fore, 95,262,475,  or  more  than  ninety-five  millions  of  square 

* Former  astronomers  reckoned  the  bulk  of  the  satellites  larger  than  the  di- 
mensions here  stated.  Cassini  and  Maraldi  reckoned  the  diameter  of  the  third 
satellite  to  be  one-eighteenth  of  the  diameter  of  Jupiter,  and  consequently,  nearly 
5000  miles  in  diameter ; and  the  first  and  second  to  be  one-twentieth  of  Jupiter’s 
diameter,  or  about  4450  miles ; which  estimation  would  make  the  magnitudes  of 
these  bodies  much  larger  than  stated  by  Struve. 


262 


SCENERY  IN  JUPITER’S  FIRMAMENT. 


miles,  which  is  about  double  the  quantity  of  surface  on  all  the 
habitable  parts  of  our  globe.  At  the  rate  of  280  inhabitants  to 
every  square  mile,  these  satellites  would,  therefore,  be  capable  of 
containing  a population  of  26,673  millions , which  is  thirty- three 
times  greater  than  the  population  of  the  earth. 

The  satellites  of  Jupiter  may  be  seen  with  a telescope  mag- 
nifying about  30  times;  but  in  order  to  perceive  their  eclipses 
with  advantage,  a power  of  100  or  150  times  is  requisite.  When 
the  brilliancy  of  the  satellites  is  examined  at  different  times,  it 
appears  to  undergo  a considerable  change.  By  comparing  the 
mutual  positions  of  the  satellites  with  the  times  when  they  acquire 
their  maximum  of  light,  Sir  W.  Herschel  concluded  that,  like 
the  moon,  they  all  turned  round  their  axis  in  the  same  time  that 
they  performed  their  revolutions  round  Jupiter.  The  same  con» 
elusion  had  been  deduced  by  former  astronomers  in  reference  to 
the  fourth  satellite.  This  satellite  was  sometimes  observed  to 
take  but  half  the  usual  time  in  its  entrance  on  the  disk  of  Jupiter 
or  its  exit  from  it,  which  was  supposed  to  be  owing  to  its  having 
a dark  spot  upon  it  that  covered  half  its  diameter;  and  by  ob- 
serving the  period  of  its  variations,  it  was  concluded  that  it  had 
a rotation  round  its  axis.  These  circumstances  form  a presump- 
tive proof  that  the  surfaces  of  these  satellites,  like  our  moon,  are 
diversified  with  objects  of  different  descriptions,  and  with  varie- 
ties of  light  and  shade.  Cassini  suspected  the  first  satellite  to 
have  an  atmosphere,  because  the  shadow  of  it  could  not  be  seen, 
when  he  was  sure  it  should  have  been,  upon  the  disk  of  Jupiter, 
if  it  had  not  been  shortened  by  its  atmosphere,  as  is  the  case  in 
respect  to  the  shadow  of  the  earth  in  lunar  eclipses. 

From  what  has  been  stated  respecting  the  motions,  magnitudes, 
and  eclipses  of  these  satellites,  it  is  evident  they  will  present  a 
most  diversified  and  sublime  scenery  in  the  firmament  of  Jupiter. 
The  first  satellite  moves  along  a circumference  of  1,633,632  miles, 
in  the  space  of  42^  hours,  at  the  rate  of  38,440  miles  an  hour, 
which  is  a motion  sixteen  times  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 
moon  in  its  circuit  round  the  earth.  During  this  short  period, 
it  presents  to  Jupiter  all  the  appearances  of  anew  moon,  crescent, 
half-moon,  gibbous  phase,  and  full  moon,  both  in  the  increase  and 
decrease;  so  that,  in  the  course  of  21  hours,  it  passes  through  all 
the  phases  which  our  moon  exhibits  to  us;  besides  suffering  an 
eclipse  in  passing  through  the  shadow  of  the  planet,  and  pro- 
ducing either  a partial  or  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  to  certain  regions 
of  J upiter  on  which  its  shadow  falls.  The  rapidity  of  its  motion 


MANNER  OF  FINDING  THE  LONGITUDE. 


263 


through  the  heavens  will  also  be  very  striking;  as  it  will  move 
through  the  whole  hemisphere  of  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  21 
hours,  besides  its  daily  apparent  motion,  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  rotation  of  Jupiter.  The  other  three  satellites  will  ex- 
hibit similar  phenomena,  but  in  different  periods  of  time.  Some- 
times two  or  three  of  these  moons,  and  sometimes  all  the  four, 
will  be  seen  shining  in  the  firmament  at  the  same  time — one  like 
a crescent,  one  like  a half-moon,  and  another  in  all  its  splendour 
as  a full  enlightened  hemisphere;  one  entering  into  an  eclipse, 
another  emerging  from  it;  one  interposing  between  the  planet 
and  the  sun,  and  for  a short  time  intercepting  his  rays;  one  ad- 
vancing from  the  eastern  horizon,  and  another  setting  in  the  west; 
one  satellite  causing  the  shadows  of  objects  on  Jupiter  to  be 
thrown  in  one  direction,  and  another  satellite  causing  them  to  be 
projected  in  another,  or  in  an  opposite  direction;  while  the  rapid 
motions  of  these  bodies  among  the  fixed  stars  will  be  strikingly 
perceptible.  Eclipses  of  the  satellites  and  of  the  sun  will  be 
almost  an  every-day  phenomenon,  and  occultations  of  the  fixed 
stars  will  be  so  frequent  and  regular  as  to  serve  as  an  accurate 
measure  of  time. 

The  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  satellites  afford  signals  of  considerable 
use  for  determining  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  earth.  For 
this  purpose  tables  of  these  eclipses,  and  of  the  times  at  which 
the  satellites  pass  across  the  disk  of  Jupiter,  or  behind  his  body, 
are  calculated  and  inserted  in  the  Nautical  and  other  almanacks. 
These  tables  are  adapted  to  the  meridian  of  the  Royal  Observa- 
tory at  Greenwich;  and  by  a proper  use  of  them,  in  connexion 
with  observations  of  the  eclipses,  the  true  meridian,  or  the  distance 
of  a place  east  or  west  from  Greenwich,  maybe  ascertained.  For 
example — suppose,  on  the  27th  of  December,  1837,  the  immer- 
sion of  Jupiter’s  first  satellite  be  observed  to  happen,  in  an  un- 
known meridian,  at  15  hours,  23  minutes,  10  seconds,  I find  by 
the  tables  that  this  immersion  will  happen  at  Greenwich  at  13 
hours,  34  minutes,  50  seconds,  of  the  same  day.  The  difference 
of  the  time  is  1 hour,  48  minutes,  20  seconds,  which,  being  con- 
verted into  degrees  of  the  equator,  (allowing  15  degrees  for  an 
hour,)  will  make  27  degrees,  5 minutes,  which  is  the  longitude 
of  the  place  of  observation.  This  longitude  is  east  of  Greenwich, 
because  the  line  of  observation  was  in  advance  of  the  time  at  the 
British  Observatory.  Had  the  time  of  observation  been  behind 
that  of  Greenwich — for  example,  at  13  hours,  4 minutes,  50 
seconds,  the  place  must  then  have  been  7|  degrees  west  of  the 


264 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  MOTION  OF  LIGHT. 


Royal  Observatory.  Before  Jupiter’s  opposition  to  the  sun,  or 
when  he  passes  the  meridian  in  the  morning,  the  shadow  is  situ- 
ated to  the  west  of  the  planet,  and  the  immersions  happen  on  that 
side;  but  after  the  opposition,  the  emersions  happen  to  the  east . 
These  eclipses  cannot  be  observed  with  advantage  unless  Jupiter 
be  8 degrees  above , and  the  sun  at  least  8 degrees  below , the 
horizon. 

The  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  moons  first  suggested  the  idea  of  the 
motion  of  light . As  the  orbit  of  the  earth  is  concentric  with 
that  of  Jupiter,  the  mutual  distance  of  these  two  bodies  is  con- 
tinually varying.  In  the  following  figure  let  S represent  the  sun; 

Fig.  81*. 


THE  SATELLITES  OF  SATURN. 


265 


By  C,  D,  Ey  the  orbit  of  the  earth;  and  G,  H , a portion  of  the 
orbit  of  Jupiter.  It  is  evident  that  when  the  earth  is  at  Ey  and 
Jupiter  at  A,  the  earth  will  be  the  semi-diameter  of  its  orbit 
nearer  Jupiter  than  when  it  is  at  B or  D;  and  when  at  Cy  it  will 
be  the  whole  diameter  of  its  orbit,  or  190  millions  of  miles, 
further  from  Jupiter  than  when  it  is  at  E . Now,  if  light  were 
instantaneous,  the  satellite  i,  to  a spectator  at  B , would  appear  to 
enter  into  J upiter’s  shadow,  k i,  at  the  same  moment  of  time  as 
to  another  spectator  at  E.  But  from  numerous  observations, 
it  was  found,  that  when  the  earth  was  at  Ey  the  immersion  of 
the  satellite  into  the  shadow  happened  sooner  by  8^  minutes  than 
when  the  earth  was  at  B;  and  16^  minutes  sooner  than  when 
the  earth  was  at  C.  It  was  therefore  concluded,  that  light  is 
not  instantaneous,  but  requires  a certain  space  of  time  to  pass 
from  one  region  or  the  universe  to  another,  and  that  the  time  it 
takes  in  passing  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  or  across  the  semi- 
diameter of  the  earth’s  orbit,  is  8^  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of 
192,000  miles  every  second,  which  is  more  than  ten  hundred 
thousand  times  swifter  than  a cannon  ball  the  moment  it  is  pro- 
jected from  the  mouth  of  the  cannon;  and  therefore  it  is  the 
swiftest  movement  with  Vvhich  we  are  acquainted  in  nature.  It 
follows  that,  if  the  sun  were  annihilated,  we  should  see  him  for 
8 minutes  afterwards;  and  if  he  were  again  created,  it  would  be 
8 minutes  before  his  light  would  be  perceived.  The  motion  of 
light  deduced  from  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  satellites  has  been  con- 
firmed by  Dr.  Bradley’s  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  pro- 
duced by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  from  which  it  appears, 
that  the  light  from  the  fixed  stars  moves  with  about  the  same 
velocity  as  the  light  of  the  sun.  ' 

III.  ON  THE  SATELLITES  OF  SATURN. 

Saturn  is  surrounded  by  no  less  than  seven  satellites,  which 
revolve  around  him,  at  different  distances,  in  a manner  similar  to 
those  of  Jupiter.  As  they  are  more  difficult  to  be  perceived  than 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  owing  to  the  great  distance  of  Saturn 
from  the  earth,  none  of  them  were  discovered  till  the  telescope 
was  considerably  improved;  and  more  than  a century  intervened 
after  the  discovery  of  the  first  five  satellites  till  the  sixth  and 
seventh  were  detected.  As  was  to  be  supposed,  the  larger 
satellites  were  first  discovered.  In  the  year  1655,  about  forty- 
five  years  after  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  M.  Huygens,  a 


266  DISCOVERY  OF  SATURN’S  SATELLITES. 

celebrated  Dutch  mathematician  and  astronomer,  discovered  the 
fourth  satellite,  which  is  the  largest,  with  a telescope  twelve  feet 
long.  Four  of  the  others  were  discovered  by  Cassini;  the  fifth 
in  1671,  which  is  next  in  brightness  to  the  fourth;  the  third  in 
December,  1672;  and  the  first  and  second  in  the  month  of  March, 
1684.  These  four  satellites  were  first  observed  by  common  re- 
fracting telescopes  of  100  and  136  feet  in  length;  but  after  being 
acquainted  with  them,  he  could  see  them  all,  in  a clear  sky,  with 
a tube  of  34  feet.  The  sixth  and  seventh  satellites  were  dis- 
covered by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  in  August,  1789,  soon  after  his  large 
forty-feet  reflecting  telescope  was  completed.  These  are  nearer 
to  Saturn  than  the  other  five;  but  to  avoid  confusion  they  are 
named  in  the  order  of  their  discovery.  The  following  is  the  order 
of  the  satellites  in  respect  of  their  distance  from  Saturn: — 

Seventh.  Sixth.  First.  Second  Third.  Fourth.  Fifth. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

The  motions  and  distances  of  these  bodies  have  not  been  so 
accurately  ascertained  as  those  of  Jupiter.  The  following  state- 
ment contains  a near  approximation  of  their  periods  and  distances. 
The  seventh  satellite,  or  that  nearest  to  Saturn,  is  distant  120,000 
miles  from  the  centre  of  the  planet,  about  80,000  from  its  surface, 
and  only  about  18,000  miles  beyond  the  edge  of  the  outer  ring. 
It  moves  round  the  planet  in  22  hours,  37  minutes,  a circuit  of 
377,000  miles,  at  the  rate  of  16,755  miles  an  hour.  The  sixth 
satellite,  or  the  second  from  Saturn,  is  distant  150,000  miles, 
and  finishes  its  revolution  in  1 day,  8 hours,  53  minutes.  The 
first  of  the  old  satellites,  or  the  third  from  Saturn,  finishes  its 
periodical  revolution  in  1 day,  21,  hours,  18  minutes,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  190,000  miles.  The  second,  (or  fourth  from  Saturn,) 
in  two  days,  17  hours,  44|  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  243,000 
miles.  The  third,  (fifth  from  Saturn,)  in  4 days,  12  hours, 
55  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  340,000  miles.  The  fourth,  (sixth 
from  Saturn,)  in  15  days,  22  hours,  51  minutes,  at  the  distance 
of  788,000  miles.  The  fifth,  (seventh  from  Saturn,)  in  79  days, 
7 hours,  and  54^  minutes,  at  the  distance  of  2, 297,000  miles. 

The  orbits  of  the  six  inner  satellites  are  inclined  about  30 
degrees  to  the  plane  of  Saturn’s  orbit,  and  lie  almost  exactly  in 
the  plane  of  the  rings,  and  therefore  they  appear  to  move  in 
ellipses  similar  to  the  ellipses  of  the  rings.  But  the  orbit  of  the 
fifth  or  outer  satellite,  makes  an  angle  with  the  plane  of  Saturn’s 
orbit  of  24  degrees,  45  minutes.  These  satellites,  having  their 


INNERMOST  SATELLITES  OF  SATURN. 


267 


orbits  inclined  at  so  great  angles  to  Saturn,  cannot  cross  the  body 
of  that  planet,  or  go  behind  it,  or  pass  through  its  shadow,  as 
Jupiter’s  satellites  do,  except  on  rare  occasions,  and  hence  they 
very  seldom  suffer  eclipses  or  occultations.  The  only  time  when 
eclipses  happen  is  near  the  periods  when  the  ring  is  seen  edgewise. 
The  fifth,  or  more  distant  satellite,  is  sometimes  invisible  in  the 
eastern  part  of  its  orbit,  which  is  supposed  to  arise  from  one 
part  of  the  satellite  being  less  luminous  than  the  rest.  Sir  W. 
Herschel  observed  this  satellite  through  all  the  variations  of  its 
light,  and  concluded,  as  Cassini  had  done  before,  that  it  turned 
round  its  axis,  like  our  moon,  in  the  same  time  that  it  performed 
its  revolution  round  Saturn,  In  consequence  of  this  rotation,  the 
obscure  part  of  its  disk  is  turned  towards  the  earth  when  in 
the  part  of  its  orbit  east  of  Saturn;  and  the  luminous  portion  of 
its  surface  is  turned  to  the  earth,  and  becomes  visible,  while  it 
passes  through  the  western  part  of  its  course. 

Of  these  satellites  the  two  innermost  are  the  smallest  and  the 
most  difficult  to  be  perceived.  They  have  never  been  discerned 
but  with  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  and  then  under  peculiar 
circumstances.  At  the  time  of  the  disappearance  of  the  ring, 
“ they  have  been  seen  threading,  like  beads,  the  almost  infinitely 
thin  fibre  of  light  to  which  it  is  then  reduced,  and,  for  a short 
time,  advancing  off  it  at  either  end.”  Few  astronomers, 
besides  Sir  W.  Herschel  and  his  son,  have  been  able  to  detect 
these  small  bodies.  The  celebrated  Schroeter,  and  Dr.  Harding,  on 
the  17th,  20th,  21st,  and  27th  of  February,  1798,  obtained  several 
views  of  the  sixth  satellite,  (the  second  from  Saturn,)  by  means 
of  a reflecting  telescope  1 3 feet  long,  carrying  a power  of  288. 
Their  observations  fully  confirmed  the  accuracy  of  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel’s  statement  of  the  period  of  its  revolution.  The  first  and 
second  satellites  (third  and  fourth  from  Saturn)  are  the  next 
smallest;  the  third  (fifth  from  Saturn)  is  greater  than  the  first 
and  second;  the  fourth  (sixth  from  Saturn,)  the  most  conspicuous, 
and  the  most  distant  satellite,  according  to  Sir  John  Herschel,  is 
by  far  the  largest,  although  it  is  not  so  conspicuous  in  one  part 
of  its  orbit.  In  order  to  see  any  of  the  satellites  of  this  planet, 
a good  telescope,  with  a power  of  at  least  70  or  80  times,  is  re- 
quisite, and  with  such  a power  only  the  two  outermost  satellites 
will  be  perceived.  To  perceive  all  the  five  old  satellites  requires 
a power  of  at  least  200  times,  and  a considerable  quantity  of 
light. 

Magnitude  of  Saturn’s  Satellites. — The  precise  bulk  of  these 


268  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  SATELLITES  OF  SATURN. 


satellites  has  not  yet  been  accurately  determined.  Sir  John  Her- 
schel  estimates  the  most  distant  satellite,  which  he  thinks  the 
largest,  as  not  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  planet  Mars,  which  is 
4200  miles  in  diameter.  The  fourth  satellite,  which  is  the  most 
conspicuous,  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  much  inferior  to  it  in 
bulk.  But  as  the  precise  dimensions  of  most  of  the  inner  satellites 
cannot  be  estimated  with  accuracy,  we  shall  not  perhaps  exceed 
the  dimensions  of  these  bodies  if  we  suppose  for  the  whole  a 
general  average  of  3000  miles  diameter  for  each.  On  this  assump- 
tion the  surface  of  each  satellite  will  contain  28,274,400  of  square 
miles,  which  is  nearly  double  the  area  of  our  moon.  The  area 
of  all  the  seven  satellites  wffll  therefore  amount  to  197,920,800, 
square  miles,  which  is  four  times  the  quantity  of  surface  on  all 
the  habitable  parts  of  the  earth.  At  the  rate  of  280  inhabit- 
ants to  the  square  mile,  these  satellites  would  therefore  contain 
55,417,824,000,  or  more  than  fifty -jive  thousand  millions  of  in- 
habitants, which  is  sixty-nine  times  the  population  of  our  globe. 

These  satellites  will  present  a beautiful  and  variegated  appear- 
ance in  the  firmament  of  Saturn ; the  nearest  satellite,  being  only 
80,000  miles  from  the  surface  of  the  planet,  which  is  only  the 
one-third  of  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth,  will  exhibit 
a very  large  and  splendid  appearance.  Supposing  it  to  be  only 
about  the  diameter  of  our  moon,  it  will  present  a surface  nearly 
nine  times  larger  than  the  moon  does  to  us;  and  in  the  course 
of  22^-  hours  will  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  a crescent,  half-moon 
full  moon,  &c.,  which  the  moon  presents  to  us  in  the  course  of 
a month;  so  that  almost  every  hour  its  phase  will  be  sensibly 
changed,  and  its  motion  round  the  heavens  will  appear  exceed- 
ingly rapid.  While,  in  consequence  of  the  diurnal  rotation  of 
Saturn,  it  will  appear  to  move  from  east  to  west,  it  will  also  be 
seen  moving  with  a rapid  velocity  among  the  stars  in  a contrary 
direction,  and  will  pass  over  a whole  hemisphere  of  the  heavens 
in  the  course  of  eleven  hours.  The  next  satellite  in  order  from 
Saturn,  being  only  110,000  miles  from  his  surface,  will  also  pre- 
sent a splendid  appearance,  much  larger  than  our  moon,  and  will 
exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  16  hours.  All 
the  other  satellites  will  exhibit  somewhat  similar  phenomena, 
but  in  different  periods  of  time.  They  will  appear,  when  viewed 
from  the  surface  of  Saturn,  of  different  sizes — some  of  them  nine 
times  larger  than  the  moon  appears  to  us,  some  three  times,  some 
double  the  size,  and  it  is  probable  that  even  the  most  distant 
satellites  will  appear  nearly  as  large  as  our  moon,  so  that  a most 


SATELLITES  OF  URANUS. 


269 


beautiful  and  sublime  variety  of  celestial  phenomena  will  be  pre- 
sented to  a spectator  in  the  heavens  of  Saturn,  besides  the  diver- 
sified aspects  of  the  rings  to  which  we  formerly  adverted, — all 
displaying  the  infinite  grandeur  and  beneficence  of  the  Creator. 

IV.  ON  THE  SATELLITES  OF  URANUS. 

This  planet  is  attended  by  six  satellites,  all  of  which  were  dis- 
covered by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  to  whom  we  owe  the  discovery  of 
the  planet  itself.  The  second  and  fourth  satellites  were  detected 
in  January  1787,  about  six  years  after  the  planet  was  discovered; 
the  other  four  were  discovered  several  years  afterwards,  but  their 
distances  and  periodical  revolutions  have  not  been  so  accurately 
ascertained  as  those  of  the  two  first  discovered. 

The  first  of  these  satellites,  or  the  nearest  to  Uranus,  completes 
its  siderial  revolution  in  5 days,  21  hours,  and  25  minutes,  at  the 
distance  of  224,000  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  planet.  The 
second , in  8 days,  17  hours,  at  the  distance  of  291,000  miles. 
The  third,  in  ten  days,  23  hours,  at  the  distance  of  340,000  miles. 
The  fourth , in  13  days,  1 1 hours,  at  the  distance  of  390,000  miles. 
The  ffth,  in  38  days,  1 hour,  48  minutes,  at  the  distance  of 
777,000  miles.  The  sixth,  in  107  days,  16  hours,  40  minutes, 
at  the  distance  of  1,556,000  miles. 

These  bodies  present  to  our  view  some  remarkable  and  unex- 
pected peculiarities.  Contrary  to  the  analogy  of  the  whole  plane- 
tary system,  the  planes  of  their  orbits  are  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  ecliptic , being  inclined  no  less  than  79  degrees  to  that  plane. 
Their  motions  in  these  orbits  are  likewise  found  to  be  retrograde , 
so  that,  instead  of  advancing  from  west  to  east,  round  Uranus, 
as  all  the  other  planets  and  satellites  do,  they  move  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Their  orbits  are  quite  circular,  or  very  nearly  so, 
and  they  do  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  material  change 
of  inclination  since  the  period  of  their  discovery.  “ These  ano- 
malous peculiarities,”  says  Sir  John  Herschel,  “ seem  to  occur  at 
the  extreme  limits  of  the  system,  as  if  to  prepare  us  for  further 
departure  from  all  its  analogies  in  other  systems  which  may  yet 
be  disclosed  to  us,”  in  the  remoter  regions  of  space. 

The  satellites  of  Uranus  are  the  most  difficult  objects  to  perceive 
of  any  within  the  boundaries  of  the  planetary  system,  excepting 
the  two  interior  satellites  of  Saturn;  and  therefore  few  observers, 
excepting  Sir  William  and  Sir  John  Herschel,  have  obtained  a 
view  of  them.  Their  magnitudes,  of  course,  have  never  been 


270 


MAGNITUDE  OF  URANUS’  SATELLITES. 


precisely  determined;  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
they  are,  on  an  average,  as  large  as  the  satellites  of  Saturn,  if 
not  larger,  otherwise  they  could  not  be  perceived  at  the  immense 
distance  at  which  they  are  placed  from  our  globe.  Supposing 
them,  on  an  average,  to  be  3000  miles  in  diameter, — and  they  can 
scarcely  be  conceived  to  be  less, — the  surfaces  of  all  the  six  satel- 
lites will  contain  169,646,400  square  miles,  or  about  3|  times 
the  area  of  all  the  habitable  portions  of  the  earth;  and  which,  at 
the  rate  formerly  stated,  would  afford  scope  for  a population  of 
47,500,992,000,  or  above  forty-seven  thousand  millions,  which 
is  about  sixty  times  the  present  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth. 

The  satellites  of  Uranus  seldom  suffer  eclipses;  but  as  the 
plane  in  which  they  move  must  pass  twice  in  the  year  through 
the  sun,  there  may  be  eclipses  of  them  at  those  times;  but  they 
can  be  seen  only  when  the  planet  is  near  its  opposition.  Some 
eclipses  were  visible  in  1799,  and  1818,  when  they  appeared  to 
ascend  through  the  shadow  of  the  planet  in  a direction  almost 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  It  is  probable  that  this 
planet  is  attended  by  more  satellites  than  those  which  have  yet 
been  discovered.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  two  satellites  at  least 
revolve  between  the  body  of  the  planet  and  the  first  satellite; 
for  the  third  satellite  of  Saturn  is  not  nearly  so  far  distant 
from  the  surface  of  that  planet  as  the  first  satellite  of  Uranus  is 
from  its  centre.  But  as  the  inner  satellites  may  be  supposed  to 
be  the  smallest,  and  yet  present  as  large  a surface  to  the  planet 
as  the  exterior  ones,  it  is  probable  that,  on  account  of  their  dimi- 
nutive size,  they  may  never  be  detected.  It  is  likewise  not  impro- 
bable that  two  satellites  may  exist  in  the  large  spaces  which  in  - 
tervene between  the  orbits  of  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  the  fifth 
and  sixth  satellites.  All  these  satellites  will  not  only  pour  a 
flood  of  light  on  this  distant  planet,  but  will  exhibit  a splendid 
and  variegated  appearance  in  its  nocturnal  firmament. 

The  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  of  which  we 
have  given  a brief  description  in  the  preceding  pages,  form,  as 
it  were,  so  many  distinct  planetary  systems  in  connexion  with 
the  great  system  of  the  sun.  The  same  laws  of  motion  and 
gravitation  which  apply  to  the  primary  planets  are  also  applicable 
to  the  secondary  planets  or  moons.  The  squares  of  their  periodical 
times  are  in  proportion  to  the  cubes  of  their  distances.  They 
are  subject  to  the  attraction  of  their  primaries,  as  all  the  primary 
planets  are  attracted  by  the  sun;  and  as  the  sun*,  in  all  probability, 


SYSTEMS  OF  THE  SATELLITES. 


271 


is  carried  round  a distant  centre  along  with  all  his  attendants,  so 
the  satellites  are  carried  round  the  sun  along  with  their  respective 
planets, — partly  by  the  influence  of  these  planets,  and  partly  by 
the  attractive  power  of  the  great  central  luminary.  Each  of  these 
secondary  systems  forms  a system  by  itself,  far  more  grand  and 
extensive  than  the  whole  planetary  system  was  conceived  to  be 
in  former  times.  Even  the  system  of  Saturn  itself,  including 
its  rings  and  satellites,  contains  a mass  of  matter  more  than  a 
thousand  times  larger  than  the  earth  and  moon.  The  system  of 
Jupiter  comprises  a mass  of  matter  nearly  fifteen  hundred  times 
the  size  of  these  two  bodies;  and  even  that  of  Uranus  is  more 
than  eighty  times  the  dimensions  of  our  terrestrial  system. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  PERFECTIONS  OF  THE  DEITY,  AS  DISPLAYED 
IN  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 

All  the  works  of  nature  speak  of  their  Author  in  language  which 
can  scarcely  be  misunderstood.  They  proclaim  the  existence  of 
an  original,  uncreated  Cause,  of  an  eternal  Power  and  Intelli- 
gence, and  of  a supreme  agency,  which  no  created  being  can 
control.  “ The  heavens,”  in  a particular  manner,  “ declare  the 
glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament  showeth  forth  his  handiwork.” 
When  we  consider  the  heavenly  orbs  in  their  size,  their  distance, 
the  rapidity  of  their  motions,  and  the  regularity  and  harmony 
with  which  they  perform  their  respective  revolutions,  it  is  ob- 
vious to  the  least  attentive  observer,  that  such  bodies  could  not 
have  formed  themselves,  or  have  arranged  their  motions,  their 
periods,  and  their  laws,  in  the  beautiful  order  in  which  we  now 
behold  them.  Motion  of  every  kind  supposes  a moving  power. 
As  matter  could  not  make  itself,  so  neither  can  it  set  itself  in 
motion.  Its  motion  must  commence  from  a power  exterior  to 
itself  and  that  power  must  correspond  in  energy  to  the  effect 
produced.  In  the  planetary  system,  we  find  bodies  a thousand 
times  larger  than  the  earth  moving  with  a velocity  sixty  times 
greater  than  a cannon  ball,  and  carrying  along  with  them  in  their 
train  other  expansive  globes  in  the  same  swift  career.  Such 


272 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY. 


motions  could  only  proceed  from  a power  which  is  beyond  cal- 
culation or  human  comprehension;  and  such  a power  can  only 
reside  in  an  uncreated,  self-existent,  and  independent  Intelligence*. 
The  continuance  of  such  motions  must  likewise  depend  upon  the 
incessant  agency  of  the  same  Almighty  Being,  either  directly,  or 
through  the  medium  of  such  subordinate  agents  as  he  is  pleased 
to  appoint  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs.  In  this  respect 
the  laws  of  motion,  of  attraction,  gravitation,  electricity,  and  other 
powers,  are  so  many  agents  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the 
Almighty  for  carrying  forward  the  plans  of  his  physical  and 
moral  government  of  the  universe. 

The  study  of  astronomy  ought  always  to  have  in  view,  as  its 
ultimate  object,  to  trace  the  Divine  perfections  as  displayed  in 
the  phenomena  of  the  heavens.  For,  as  our  poet  Milton  ex- 
presses it,  “.Heaven  is  as  the  book  of  God  before  us  set,  wherein 
to  read  his  wondrous  works.”  There  is  no  scene  we  can  contem- 
plate in  which  the  attributes  of  the  Divinity  are  so  magnificently 
displayed.  It  is  in  the  heavens  alone  that  we  perceive  a sensible 
evidence  of  the  infinity  of  his  perfections,  of  the  grandeur  of  his 
operations,  and  of  the  immeasurable  extent  of  his  universal  do- 
minions. Even  the  planetary  system,  small  as  it  is  in  comparison 
of  the  whole  extent  of  creation,  contains  within  it  wonders  of 
creating  omnipotence  and  skill,  which  almost  overpower  the 
human  faculties,  and  demonstrate  the  “ eternal  power  and  God- 
head” of  him  who  at  first  brought  it  into  existence.  To  consider 
astronomy  merely  as  a secular  branch  of  knowledge,  which  im- 
proves navigation,  and  gives  scope  to  the  mathematician’s  skill, 
and  to  overlook  the  demonstrations  it  affords  of  the  attributes  of 
the  invisible  Divinity,  would  be  to  sink  this  noble  study  far  below 
its  native  dignity,  and  to  throw  into  the  shade  the  most  illustrious 
manifestations  of  the  glories  of  the  Eternal  Mind. 

When  we  contemplate  the  stupendous  globes  of  which  the 
planetary  system  is  composed,  and  the  astonishing  velocity  with 
which  they  run  their  destined  rounds,  we  cannot  but  be  struck 
with  an  impressive  idea  of  the  Power  of  the  Deity — of  the  in- 
comprehensible energies  of  the  eternal  mind  that  first  launched 
them  into  existence.  What  are  all  the  efforts  of  puny  man  as 
displayed  in  the  machinery  he  has  set  in  motion,  and  in  the  most 
magnificent  structures  he  has  reared,  in  comparison  with  worlds 
a thousand  times  larger  than  this  earthly  ball,  and  with  forces 
which  impel  them  in  their  courses,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  thousand, 
and  even  a hundred  thousand,  miles  an  hour!  The  mind  is  over- 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY. 


273 


powered  and  bewildered  when  it  contemplates  such  august  and 
magnificent  operations.  Man,  with  all  his  imaginary  pomp  and 
greatness,  appears,  on  the  comparison,  as  a mere  microscopic 
animalcule,  yea,  as  “less  than  nothing  and  vanity;”  and  such 
displays  of  the  Omnipotence  of  Jehovah  are  intended  to  bring 
down  the  “ lofty  looks  of  men,”  and  to  stain  the  pride  of  all 
human  grandeur,  “ that  no  flesh  should  glory  in  his  presence.” 
Without  materials,  and  without  the  aid  of  instruments  or  ma- 
chinery, the  foundations  of  the  planetary  system  were  laid,  and 
all  its  arrangements  completed.  “ He  only  spake , and  it  was 
done;”  he  only  gave  the  command , and  mighty  worlds  started 
into  existence,  and  run  their  spacious  rounds.  “ By  the  word  of 
the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made,  and  all  the  host  of  them  by  the 
breath  of  his  mouth.”  That  Almighty  Being  who,  by  a single 
volition,  could  produce  such  stupendous  effects,  must  be  capable 
of  effecting  what  far  transcends  our  limited  conceptions.  His 
agency  must  be  universal  and  uncontrollable,  and  no  created 
being  can  ever  hope  to  frustrate  the  purposes  of  his  will,  or 
counteract  the  designs  of  his  moral  government.  Whatever  he 
has  promised  will  be  performed;  whatever  he  has  predicted,  by 
his  inspired  messengers,  must  assuredly  be  accomplished.  “ For 
the  kingdom  is  the  Lord’s,  he  is  the  Governor  among  the  nations,” 
and  all  events,  and  the  movements  of  all  intelligent  agents,  are 
subject  to  his  sovereign  control.  “ Though  the  mountains  should 
be  carried  into  the  midst  of  the  seas,  and  the  earth  reel  to  and  fro, 
like  a drunkard;”  yea,  though  this  spacious  globe  should  be  wrapt 
in  flames,  and  “ all  that  it  inherits  be  dissolved,”  yet  that  power 
which  brought  into  existence  the  planetary  worlds,  and  has  sup- 
ported them  in  their  rapid  career  for  thousands  of  years,  can 
cause  “ new  heavens  and  a new  earth,  wherein  dwelleth  righ- 
teousness,” to  arise  out  of  its  ruins,  and  to  remain  in  undiminished 
beauty  and  splendour.  “ The  heavens,”  says  an  inspired  writer, 
“ declare  the  glory  of  the  Lord,  and  there  is  no  speech  nor  lan- 
guage where  their  voice  is  not  heard.”  Even  the  pagan  nations 
were  impressed  with  the  power  of  a supreme  intelligence,  from 
a contemplation  of  the  nocturnal  firmament.  “ When  we  behold 
the  heavens,”  says  Cicero,  “ when  we  contemplate  the  celestial 
bodies,  can  we  fail  of  conviction?  Must  we  not  acknowledge 
that  there  is  a Divinity,  a perfect  being,  a ruling  intelligence 
which  governs,  a God  who  is  everywhere,  and  directs  all  by  his 
power?  Any  one  who  doubts  this  may  as  well  deny  there  is  a 
sun  that  enlightens  us.”  Plato,  when  alluding  to  the  motions  of 

T 


274  POWER  DISPLAYED  IN  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

the  sun  and  planets,  exclaims,  44  How  is  it  possible  for  so  prodi- 
gious masses  to  be  carried  round  for  so  long  a period  by  any 
natural  cause?  for  which  reason  I assert  God  to  be  the  great  and 
first  cause,  and  that  it  is  impossible  it  should  be  otherwise.” 

A very  slight  view  of  the  planetary  system  is  sufficient  to  im- 
press our  minds  with  an  overpowering  sense  of  the  grandeur  and 
Omnipotence  of  the  Deity.  In  one  part  of  it  we  behold  a globe 
fourteen  hundred  times  larger  than  our  world,  flying  through  the 
depths  of  space,  and  carrying  along  with  it  a retinue  of  revolving 
worlds  in  its  swift  career.  In  a more  distant  region  of  this  sys- 
tem we  behold  another  globe,  of  nearly  the  same  size,  surrounded 
by  two  magnificent  rings,  which  would  enclose  500  worlds  as 
large  as  ours,  winging  its  flight  through  the  regions  of  immensity, 
and  conveying  along  with  it  seven  planetary  bodies  larger  than 
our  moon,  and  the  stupendous  arches  with  which  it  is  encircled, 
over  a circumference  of  five  thousand  seven  hundred  millions  of 
miles.  Were  we  to  suppose  ourselves  placed  on  the  nearest 
satellite  of  this  planet,  and  were  the  satellite  supposed  to  be  at 
rest,  we  should  behold  a scene  of  grandeur  altogether  overwhelm- 
ing; a globe  filling  a great  portion  of  the  visible  heavens,  en- 
circled by  its  immense  rings,  and  surrounded  by  its  moons,  each 
moving  in  its  distinct  sphere,  and  around  its  axis,  and  all  at  the 
same  time  flying  before  us,  in  perfect  harmony,  with  the  velocity 
of  22,000  miles  an  hour.  Such  a scene  would  far  transcend 
everything  we  now  behold  from  our  terrestrial  sphere,  and  all  the 
conceptions  we  can  possibly  form  of  motion,  of  sublimity,  and 
grandeur.  Contemplating  such  an  assemblage  of  magnificent 
objects,  moving  through  the  ethereal  regions  with  such  astonish- 
ing velocity,  we  would  feel  the  full  force  of  the  sentiments  of  in- 
spiration— 44  The  Lord  God  Omnipotent  reigneth.  His  power 
is  irresistible;  his  greatness  is  unsearchable;  wonderful  things 
doth  he  which  we  cannot  comprehend.” 

The  motions  of  the  bodies  which  compose  this  system  convey 
an  impressive  idea  of  the  agency  and  the  energies  of  Omnipotence. 
One  of  these  bodies — eighty  times  larger  than  the  earth,  and  the 
slowest  moving  orb  in  the  system — is  found  to  move  through  its 
expansive  orbit,  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  thousand  miles  an  hour; 
another,  at  twenty-nine  thousand  miles  in  the  same  period,  al- 
though it  is  more  than  a thousand  times  the  size  of  our  globe; 
another,  at  the  rate  of  eighty  thousand  miles;  and  a fourth,  with 
a velocity  of  more  than  a hundred  thousand  miles  every  hour,  or 
thirty  miles  during  every  beat  of  our  pulse.  The  mechanicai 


WISDOM  OF  THE  DEITY. 


275 


forces  requisite  to  produce  such  motions,  surpass  the  mathemati- 
cian’s skill  to  estimate,  or  the  power  of  numbers  to  express. 
Such  astonishing  velocities,  in  bodies  of  so  stupendous  a magni- 
tude, though  incomprehensible,  and  overwhelming  to  our  limited 
faculties,  exhibit  a most  convincing  demonstration  of  the  exist- 
ence of  an  agency  and  a power  which  no  created  beings  can  ever 
counteract,  and  which  no  limits  can  control.  Above  all,  the 
central  body  of  this  system  presents  to  our  view  an  object  which 
is  altogether  overpowering  to  human  intellects,  and  of  which,  in 
our  present  state,  we  shall  never  be  able  to  form  an  adequate 
conception.  A luminous  globe,  thirteen  hundred  thousand  times 
larger  than  our  world,  and  five  hundred  times  more  capacious 
than  all  the  planets,  satellites,  and  comets,  taken  together,  and 
this  body,  revolving  round  its  axis,  and  through  the  regions  of 
space,  extending  its  influences  to  the  remotest  spaces  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  retaining  by  its  attractive  power  all  the  planets  in  their 
orbits — is  an  object  which  the  limited  faculties  of  the  human 
mind,  however  improved,  can  never  grasp,  in  all  its  magnitude 
and  relations,  so  as  to  form  a full  and  comprehensive  idea  of  its 
magnificence.  But  it  displays,  in  a most  astonishing  manner, 
the  grandeur  of  him  who  launched  it  into  existence,  and  lighted 
it  up  “ by  the  breath  of  his  mouth and  it  exhibits,  to  all  intel- 
ligences, a demonstration  of  his  “ eternal  power  and  Godhead.” 
So  that,  although  there  were  no  bodies  existing  in  the  universe 
but  those  of  the  planetary  system,  they  would  afford  an  evidence 
of  a power  to  which  no  limits  can  be  assigned — a power  which 
is  infinite,  universal,  and  uncontrollable. 

The  planetary  system  likewise  exhibits  a display  of  the  wisdom 
and  intelligence  of  the  Deity.  If  it  is  an  evidence  of  wisdom  in 
an  artist,  that  he  has  arranged  all  the  parts  of  a machine,  and 
proportioned  the  movements  of  its  different  wheels  and  pinions, 
so  as  exactly  to  accomplish  the  end  intended,  then  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  planetary  system  affords  a bright  display  of  “ the 
manifold  wisdom  of  God.”  In  the  centre  of  this  system  is  placed 
the  great  source  of  light  and  heat,  and  from  no  other  point  could 
those  solar  emanations  be  propagated,  in  an  equable  and  uniform 
manner,  to  the  worlds  which  roll  around  it.  Had  the  sun  been 
placed  at  a remote  distance  from  the  centre,  or  near  one  of  the 
planetary  orbits,  the  planets,  in  one  part  of  their  course,  would 
have  been  scorched  with  the  most  intense  heat,  and  in  another 
part  would  have  been  subjected  to  all  the  rigours  of  excessive 
cold, — their  motions  would  have  been  deranged,  and  their  present 

t 2 


276 


WISDOM  DISPLAYED 


constitution  destroyed.  The  enormous  bulk  of  this  central  body 
was  likewise  requisite  to  diffuse  light  and  attractive  influence 
throughout  every  part  of  the  system.  The  diurnal  rotations  of 
the  planets  evince  the  same  wisdom  and  intelligence.  Were  these 
bodies  destitute  of  diurnal  motions,  one-half  of  their  surfaces 
would  be  parched  with  perpetual  day,  and  the  other  half  involved 
in  the  gloom  of  a perpetual  night.  To  the  inhabitants  of  one 
hemisphere  the  sun  would  never  appear;  and  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  other,  the  stars  would  be  invisible;  and  those  expansive 
regions  of  the  universe,  where  the  magnificence  of  God  is  so 
strikingly  displayed,  would  be  for  ever  veiled  from  their  view. 
The  permanency  of  the  axes  on  which  the  planets  revolve  was 
likewise  necessary,  in  order  to  the  stability  of  the  system,  and  the 
comfort  of  its  inhabitants;  and  so  we  find  that  their  poles  point 
invariably  in  the  same  direction,  or  to  the  same  points  of  the  hea- 
vens, with  only  a slight  variation,  scarcely  perceptible  till  after 
the  lapse  of  centuries.  As  the  planets  are  of  a spheroidal  figure, 
had  the  direction  of  their  axes  been  liable  to  frequent  and  sudden 
changes,  the  most  alarming  and  disastrous  catastrophes  might 
have  ensued.  In  such  a globe  as  ours,  the  shifting  of  its  axis 
might  change  the  equatorial  parts  of  the  earth  into  the  polar,  or 
the  polar  into  the  equatorial,  to  the  utter  destruction  of  those 
plants  and  animals  which  are  not  capable  of  interchanging  their 
situations.  Such  a change  would  likewise  cause  the  seas  to 
abandon  their  former  positions,  and  to  rush  to  the  new  equator, 
the  consequence  of  which  would  be,  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
men  and  animals  with  which  it  is  now  peopled  would  be  again 
overwhelmed  in  a general  deluge,  and  the  habitable  earth  reduced 
to  a cheerless  desert.  But  all  such  disasters  are  prevented  by 
the  permanent  position  of  the  axis  of  our  globe,  and  of  the  other 
planets,  during  every  part  of  their  annual  revolutions,  as  fixed 
and  determined  by  Him  who  is  “ wonderful  in  counsel,  and  ex- 
cellent in  working.” 

The  same  wisdom  is  conspicuous  in  so  nicely  balancing  and 
'proportioning  the  magnitudes , motions , and  distances  of  the 
planetary  orbs . We  find  that  the  larger  planets  move  in  orbits 
most  remote  from  the  smaller  planets,  and  from  the  centre  of  the 
system.  If  the  great  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  had  moved 
in  lower  spheres,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  the  smaller,  their 
attractive  force  would  have  had  a much  more  powerful  influence 
than  it  now  has  in  disturbing  the  planetary  motions,  and  might 
have  introduced  considerable  confusion  into  the  system.  But, 


IN  THE  PLANETARY  ARRANGEMENTS. 


277 


while  they  revolve  at  so  great  distances  from  all  the  inferior 
planets,  their  influence  is  inconsiderable,  and  the  slight  pertur- 
bations they  produce  are  not  permanent,  but  periodical;  they 
come  to  a limit,  and  then  go  back  again  to  the  same  point  as 
before.  Again,  the  law  of  gravitation , by  which  the  planets  are 
directed  in  their  motions,  is  also  an  evidence  of  Divine  Intelli- 
gence. This  law  is  found  to  act  reciprocally  as  the  square  of 
the  distance, — that  is,  at  double  the  distance,  it  has  one -fourth, 
and  at  triple  the  distance,  one-ninth  of  the  force;  at  one-half  the 
distance,  it  has  four  times,  and  at  one-third  the  distance,  it  has 
nine  times  the  strength  or  influence.  Now,  it  could  easily  be 
shown  that  a law,  directly  opposite  to  this,  or  even  differing 
materially  from  it,  would  not  only  derange  the  harmony  of  the 
system,  but  might  be  attended  with  the  most  disastrous  conse- 
quences. If,  for  instance,  a planet,  as  large  and  as  remote  as 
Saturn,  had  attracted  the  earth  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
matter  it  contains,  and  at  the  same  time,  in  any  proportion  to 
its  distance — in  other  words,  had  its  attractive  power  been  greater 
the  further  it  was  removed  from  us,  it  would  have  dragged  our 
globe  out  of  its  course,  deranged  its  motions,  and  in  all  probability, 
deprived  us  of  the  security  we  now  possess,  and  of  all  the  pros- 
pects and  enjoyments  which  depend  upon  its  equable  and  harmo- 
nious movements. 

There  is  no  contrivance  in  the  system  more  wonderful  than  the 
rings  of  Saturn.  That  these  rings  should  be  separated  thirty 
thousand  miles  from  the  body  of  the  planet;  that  they  should, 
notwithstanding,  accompany  the  planet  in  its  revolution  round 
the  sun,  preserving  invariably  the  same  distance  from  it;  that 
they  should  revolve  round  the  planet  every  ten  hours,  at  the  im- 
mense velocity  of  more  than  a thousand  miles  in  a minute;  and 
that  they  should  never  fly  off  to  the  distant  regions  of  space,  nor 
fall  down  upon  the  planet,  are  circumstances  which  required 
adjustments  far  more  intricate  and  exquisite  than  we  can  con- 
ceive, and  demonstrate  that  the  Almighty  Contriver  of  that  stu- 
pendous appendage  to  the  globe  of  Saturn,  is  “ Great  in  counsel, 
and  mighty  in  operation.”  Yet  these  adjustments,  in  whatever 
they  may  consist,  have  been  completely  effected.  For  this  planet 
has  been  flying  through  the  regions  of  space,  in  a regular  curve, 
for  thousands  of  years,  and  the  system  of  its  satellites  and  rings 
still  remains  permanent  and  unimpaired,  as  at  its  first  creation. 

An  evidence  of  wisdom  may  likewise  be  perceived  in  the 
distance  at  which  each  planet  is  placed  from  the  great  central 


278 


WISDOM  DISPLAYED  IN  THE 


body  of  the  system.  In  the  case  of  our  own  globe,  its  distance 
from  the  sun  is  so  adjusted  as  to  correspond  to  the  density  of  the 
earth  and  waters,  to  the  temper  and  constitution  of  the  bodies  of 
men  and  other  animals,  and  to  the  general  state  of  all  things 
here  below.  The  quantity  of  light  which  the  central  luminary 
diffuses  around  us  is  exactly  adapted  to  the  structure  of  our  eyes 
— to  the  width  of  their  pupils,  and  the  nervous  sensibility  of  the 
retina.  The  heat  it  produces,  by  its  action  on  the  caloric  con- 
nected with  our  globe,  is  of  such  a temperature  as  is  exactly 
suited  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  to  the  constitution  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  tribes.  It  is  placed  at  such  a distance  as  to  en- 
lighten and  warm  us,  and  not  so  near  as  to  dazzle  us  with  its 
splendour,  or  scorch  us  with  its  excessive  heat;  but  to  cheer  all 
the  tribes  of  living  beings,  and  to  nourish  the  soil  with  its  kindly 
warmth.  Were  the  earth  removed  fifty  millions  of  miles  further 
from  the  sun,  everything  around  us  would  be  frozen  up,  and  we 
should  have  been  perpetually  shivering  amidst  all  the  rigours  of 
excessive  cold.  Were  it  placed  as  much  nearer,  the  waters  of 
the  rivers  and  the  ocean  would  be  transformed  into  vapour;  the 
earth  would  be  hardened  into  an  impenetrable  crust;  the  process 
of  vegetation  would  cease;  and  all  the  orders  of  animated  beings 
would  faint  under  the  excessive  splendour  of  the  solar  beams. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  distances  of  the  other  planets  are 
likewise  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  substances  of  which  they 
are  composed,  and  the  constitution  of  their  inhabitants.  We 
find  that  the  densities  of  these  bodies  decrease  in  proportion  to 
their  distance  from  the  sun;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  this 
is  one  reason,  among  others,  why  they  are  placed  at  different 
distances,  and  are  thus  adapted  to  the  greater  or  less  degree 
of  influence  which  the  central  luminary  may  produce  on  their 
surfaces. 

The  figures  of  the  planetary  bodies  likewise  indicate  con- 
trivance and  intelligence.  They  are  all  either  of  a spherical  or 
spheroidal  form;  and  this  figure  is  evidently  the  best  adapted  to 
a habitable  world.  It  is  the  most  capacious  of  all  forms,  and 
contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  area  in  the  least  possible  space. 
It  is  the  best  adapted  to  motion,  both  annual  and  diurnal;  every 
part  of  the  surface  being  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
centre  of  gravity  and  motion.  Without  this  figure  there  could 
have  been  no  comfortable  and  regular  alternations  of  day  and 
night  in  our  world,  as  we  now  enjoy;  and  the  light  of  the  sun, 
and  the  mass  of  waters,  could  not  have  been  equably  distributed. 


DISTANCES  AND  FIGURES  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


279 


Had  the  earth  been  of  a cubical,  prismatic,  or  pentagonal  form, 
or  of  any  other  angular  figure,  some  parts  would  have  been  com- 
paratively near  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  others  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  miles  further  from  it;  certain  countries  would  have 
been  exposed  to  furious  tempests,  which  would  have  overturned 
and  destroyed  every  object,  while  others  would  have  been  stifled 
for  want  of  currents  and  agitation  in  the  air;  one  part  would  have 
been  overwhelmed  with  water,  and  another  entirely  destitute 
of  the  liquid  element;  one  part  might  have  enjoyed  the  benign 
influence  of  the  sun,  while  another  might  have  been  within  the 
shadow  of  elevations  a hundred  miles  high,  and  in  regions  of 
insufferable  cold.  In  short,  while  one  country  might  have 
resembled  a paradise,  others  would  have  been  transformed  into 
a chaos,  where  nothing  was  to  be  seen  but  barrenness  and  hideous 
desolation;  but  the  globular  figure  which  the  Creator  has  given 
to  our  world  prevents  all  such  inconveniences  and  evils,  and 
secures  to  us  all  the  advantages  we  enjoy  from  the  equable  dis- 
tribution of  light  and  gravity,  of  the  waters  of  our  seas  and  rivers, 
and  of  the  winds  and  motions  of  the  atmosphere;  and  arrange- 
ments, similar  or  analogous,  are  enjoyed  by  all  the  other  planetary 
worlds,  in  consequence  of  the  globular  figure  which  has  been 
impressed  upon  them. 

The  same  Divine  Wisdom  is  displayed  throughout  the  solar 
system,  in  the  nice  adjustment  of  the  projectile  velocity  to  the 
attractive  power . The  natural  tendency  of  all  motion,  impressed 
by  a single  force,  is  to  make  the  body  move  in  a straight  line. 
The  projectile  force  originally  given  to  the  planets,  if  not 
counteracted,  would  carry  them  away  from  the  sun,  in  right  lines, 
through  the  regions  of  infinite  space.  On  the  other  hand,  had 
the  planets  been  acted  upon  solely  by  an  attractive  power  pro- 
ceeding from  the  centre,  they  would  have  moved  with  an  in- 
creased velocity  towards  that  centre,  and,  in  a short  time,  have 
fallen  upon  the  body  of  the  sun.  ISow  the  Divine  Intelligence 
strikingly  appears  in  nicely  proportioning  and  balancing  these 
two  powers,  so  as  to  make  the  planets  describe  orbits  nearly  cir- 
cular. If  these  powers  had  not  been  accurately  adjusted,  the 
whole  system  would  have  run  into  confusion.  For,  were  the 
velocity  of  any  planet  double  to  what  would  make  it  move  in  a 
circle  or  ellipse,  it  would  rush  from  its  sphere  through  the  regions 
of  immensity,  and  never  again  return  to  its  former  orbit.  Or, 
should  half  its  velocity  be  taken  away,  the  planet  would  descend 
obliquely  toward  the  sun,  till  it  became  four  times  nearer  him 


280 


DISPLAYS  OF  DIVINE  WISDOM. 


than  before,  and  then  ascend  to  its  former  place;  and  by  ascend- 
ing and  descending  alternately,  would  describe  a very  eccentric 
orbit,  and  would  feel  the  influence  of  the  solar  light  and  power 
sixteen  times  greater  in  one  part  of  its  course  than  in  another — 
which  would  prevent  such  a globe  as  ours,  and  probably  all  the 
planetary  bodies,  from  being  habitable  worlds.  But,  in  this 
respect,  every  part  of  the  celestial  mechanism  is  adjusted  with 
the  nicest  skill,  and  the  whole  system  appears  a scene  of  beauty, 
order,  and  stability,  worthy  of  the  Intelligence  of  Him  “ who 
hath  established  the  world  by  his  wisdom,  and  stretched  out  the 
heavens  by  his  understanding.”  And  as  the  power  of  gravitation 
was  first  impressed  upon  matter  by  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  so 
its  continued  action  is  every  moment  dependent  on  his  Sovereign 
Will.  Were  its  influence  to  be  suspended,  the  whole  system  would 
immediately  dissolve,  and  run  into  confusion.  The  centrifugal 
force  of  the  planets,  in  whirling  round  their  axes,  would  shatter 
them  into  pieces,  and  dissipate  their  parts  throughout  the  cir- 
cumambient spaces;  every  portion  of  matter  would  fly  in  straight 
lines,  according  as  the  projectile  force  chanced  to  direct  at  the 
moment  this  power  was  suspended,  and  the  regions  of  infinite 
space,  instead  of  presenting  a prospect  of  beauty  and  order, 
would  become  a scene  of  derangement,  overspread  with  the  wrecks 
of  all  the  globes  in  the  universe.  So  that  the  order  and  stability 
of  universal  nature  entirely  depends  upon  the  will  and  the  omni- 
potence of  the  Deity,  in  sustaining  in  constant  action  the  power 
of  universal  gravitation.  Were  it  his  pleasure  that  the  material 
world  should  be  dissolved,  and  its  inhabitants  destroyed,  he  has 
only  to  interpose  his  Almighty  fiat,  and  proclaim: — “Let  the 
power  of  attraction  be  suspended,”  and  the  vast  universe  would 
soon  be  unhinged  and  return  to  its  original  chaos. 

In  short,  the  depth  of  the  Divine  Wisdom  might  have  been 
illustrated  from  the  constant  proportion  between  the  times  of  the 
periodical  revolutions  of  all  the  planets,  primary  and  secondary, 
and  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances — from  the  constancy  and 
regularity  of  their  motions — that  amidst  so  immense  a variety  of 
moving  masses,  all  should  observe  their  due  bounds,  and  keep 
their  appointed  paths,  to  answer  the  great  ends  of  their  creation 
— from  the  exactness  with  which  they  run  their  destined  rounds, 
finishing  their  circuits  with  so  much  accuracy  as  not  to  deviate 
from  the  periods  of  their  revolutions  a single  minute  in  a hundred 
years — from  the  distances  of  the  several  planets  from  the  sun, 
compared  with  their  respective  densities — from  the  velocities  in 


BENEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DEITY. 


281 


their  orbits  compared  with  their  distances  from  the  central 
luminary — from  the  wonderful  simplicity  of  the  laws  on  which 
so  much  beauty,  harmony,  and  enjoyment  depend — and  from 
various  other  considerations;  all  which  would  tend  to  demonstrate 
that  He  who  framed  the  planetary  system  is  “ the  only  wise  God,” 
whose  “ understanding  is  infinite,”  and  the  depth  of  whose  intel- 
ligence is  “ past  finding  out.” 

From  what  we  have  now  stated,  we  may  see  what  a beautiful 
and  divine  fabric  the  solar  system  exhibits.  Like  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  Infinite  Wisdom,  its  foundations  are  plain  and  simple, 
but  its  superstructure  is  wonderful  and  diversified.  The  causes 
which  produce  the  effects  are  few,  but  the  phenomena  are  in- 
numerable. While  the  ends  to  be  accomplished  are  numerous 
and  various,  the  means  are  the  fewest  that  could  possibly  bring 
the  design  into  effect.  What  a striking  contrast  is  presented 
between  the  works  of  Omnipotence  as  they  really  exist,  and  the 
bungling  schemes  of  the  ancient  astronomers! — who,  with  all 
their  cycles,  epicycles,  concentric  and  eccentric  circles,  their 
deferents,  and  solid  crystalline  spheres,  could  never  account  for 
the  motions  of  the  planetary  orbs,  nor  explain  their  phenomena. 
The  plans  of  the  Almighty,  both  in  the  material  world  and  in  his 
moral  government,  are  quite  unlike  the  circumscribed  and 
complex  schemes  of  man.  Like  himself,  they  are  magnificent 
and  stupendous,  and  yet  accomplished  by  means  apparently  weak 
and  simple.  All  his  works  are  demonstrations,  not  only  of  his 
existence,  but  of  his  inscrutable  wisdom  and  superintending 
providence.  As  the  accomplishments  of  every  workman  are 
known  from  the  work  which  he  executes,  so  the  operations  of 
the  Deity  evince  his  supreme  agency  and  his  boundless  perfec- 
tions. What  being  less  than  infinite  could  have  arranged  the 
solar  system,  and  launched  from  his  hand  the  huge  masses  of  the 
planetary  worlds?  What  mathematician  could  so  nicely  calculate 
their  distances  and  arrange  their  motions?  Or  what  mechanic 
so  accurately  contrive  their  figures,  adjust  their  movements,  or 
balance  their  projectile  force  with  the  power  of  gravitation? 
None  but  He  whose  power  is  supreme  and  irresistible,  whose 
agency  is  universal,  and  whose  wisdom  is  unsearchable. 

In  the  last  place,  the  planetary  system  exhibits  a display  of 
the  goodness  of  the  Creator,  and  of  his  superintending  care. 
The  goodness  of  God  is  that  perfection  of  his  nature  by  which 
he  delights  to  communicate  happiness  to  every  order  of  his  crea- 
tures. Now,  all  the  movements  and  arrangements  of  the 


282 


DIVINE  GOODNESS  DISPLAYED 


planetary  bodies  are  so  ordered  and  directed  as  to  act  in  subser- 
viency to  the  happiness  of  sentient  and  intelligent  beings.  This 
is  evidently  the  grand  design  of  all  the  wise  contrivances  to 
which  we  have  adverted.  The  spherical  figure  given  to  all  the 
planets  for  the  regular  distribution  of  the  waters  of  the  seas  and 
rivers,  and  of  the  currents  of  the  atmosphere — their  rotation  on 
their  axes,  to  produce  the  alternate  succession  of  day  and  night 
— the  situation  of  the  sun  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  for  the 
equable  distribution  of  light  and  heat  to  surrounding  planets — 
and  an  apparatus  of  rings  and  moons,  to  reflect  a mild  radiance 
in  the  absence  of  the  sun — are  contrivances  which  can  only  have 
a respect  to  the  comfort  and  conveniency  of  animated  beings; 
for  they  can  serve  no  purpose  to  mere  inert  matter,  devoid  of 
life  and  intelligence,  and  the  Creator,  so  far  as  we  know,  never 
employs  means  without  a corresponding  end  in  view.  In  our 
world,  the  utility  of  these  arrangements,  in  order  to  our  happi- 
ness, is  obvious  to  the  least  reflecting  mind.  Without  light,  our 
globe  would  be  little  else  than  a gloomy  prison;  for  it  is  this 
that  cheers  the  heart  of  man,  and  unveils  to  our  view  the  beauties 
and  sublimities  of  creation;  and  had  the  earth  no  rotation,  and 
were  the  sun  continually  shining  on  the  same  hemisphere,  the 
temperate  zones,  as  well  as  the  equatorial  regions,  would  be 
parched  with  a perpetual  day,  the  moisture  of  the  soil  evaporated, 
the  earth  hardened,  vegetables  deprived  of  nourishment,  the 
functions  of  the  atmosphere  deranged,  and  numerous  other  in- 
conveniences would  ensue,  from  which  we  are  now  protected  by 
the  existing  arrangements  of  nature.  And  as  such  contrivances 
are  essential  to  the  comfort  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  so  we 
have  every  reason  to  conclude  that  these  and  all  the  additional 
arrangements  connected  with  other  planets  are  intended  to  pro- 
mote the  enjoyment  of  the  different  orders  of  sensitive  and  intel- 
ligent existence  with  which  they  are  peopled. 

As  the  object  of  the  wise  contrivances  of  the  Deity  is  the 
communication  of  happiness,  it  would  be  inconsistent  with  every 
rational  view  we  can  take  of  his  wisdom  and  intelligence  not  to 
admit  that  the  same  end  is  kept  in  view  in  every  part  of  his 
dominions , however  far  removed  from  the  sphere  of  our  imme- 
diate contemplation,  and  though  we  are  not  permitted  in  the 
meantime  to  inspect  the  minute  details  connected  with  the 
economy  of  other  worlds.  For  the  Creator  must  always  be  con- 
sidered as  consistent  with  himself — as  acting  on  the  same  eternal 
and  immutable  principles  at  all  times,  and  throughout  every 


IN  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 


283 


department  of  his  empire.  He  cannot  be  supposed  to  devise  means 
in  order  to  accomplish  important  ends  in  relation  to  our  world, 
while  in  other  regions  of  creation  he  devises  means  for  no  end  at 
all . To  suppose,  for  a moment,  such  a thing  possible,  would  be 
highly  derogatory  to  the  Divine  character,  and  would  confound 
all  our  ideas  of  the  harmony  and  consistency  of  the  attributes  of 
Him  who  is  “the  only  wise  God.”  We  have,  therefore,  the 
highest  reason  to  conclude  that  not  only  this  earth,  but  the  whole 
of  the  planetary  system,  is  a scene  of  Divine  benevolence ; for  it 
displays  to  our  view  a number  of  magnificent  globes,  with  special 
contrivances  and  arrangements,  all  fitted  to  be  the  abodes  of  in- 
telligent beings,  and  to  contribute  to  their  enjoyment.  Every 
provision  has  been  made  to  supply  them  with  that  light  which 
unfolds  the  beauties  of  nature  and  the  glories  of  the  firmament. 
All  the  arrangements  for  its  equable  distribution  have  been 
effected,  and  several  wonderful  modes,  unknown  in  our  world, 
have  been  contrived  for  alleviating  their  darkness  in  the  absence 
of  the  sun — all  which  contrivances  are,  doubtless,  accompanied 
by  many  others  which  lie  beyond  the  range  of  our  conception, 
and  which  our  remote  distance  prevents  us  from  contemplating. 

In  proportion,  then,  as  the  other  planets  exceed  the  earth  in 
size,  in  a similar  proportion,  we  may  conceive,  is  the  extent  of 
that  theatre  on  which  the  Divine  goodness  is  displayed.  If  this 
“ earth  is  full  of  the  goodness  of  the  Lord” — if  the  benevolence 
of  the  Creator  has  distributed  unnumbered  comforts  among  every 
order  of  creatures  here  below — what  must  be  the  exuberance  of 
his  bounty,  and  the  overflowing  streams  of  felicity  enjoyed  in 
worlds  which  contain  thousands  „of  times  the  population  of  our 
globe!  If  a world,  which  has  been  partly  deranged  by  the  sin 
of  its  inhabitants,  abounds  with  so  many  pleasures,  what 
numerous  sources  of  happiness  must  abound,  and  what  ecstatic 
joys  must  be  felt,  in  those  worlds  where  moral  evil  has  never 
entered,  where  diseases  and  death  are  unknown,  and  where  the 
inhabitants  bask  perpetually  in  the  regions  of  immortality ! Were 
we  permitted  to  take  a nearer  view  of  the  enjoyments  of  some  of 
those  worlds — were  we  to  behold  the  magnificent  scenery  with 
which  they  are  encircled — the  riches  of  Divine  munificence  which 
appear  on  every  hand — the  inhabitants  adorned  with  the  beauties 
of  moral  perfection,  and  every  society  cemented  by  the  bond  of 
universal  love,  and  displaying  the  virtues  of  angelic  natures — it 
is  highly  probable  that  all  the  enjoyments  of  this  terrestrial 
sphere  would  appear  only  “ as  the  drop  of  a bucket  and  the 


284 


BENEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DIVINE  MIND. 


small  dust  of  the  balance,”  and  as  unworthy  of  our  regard,  in 
comparison  of  the  overflowing  fountains  of  bliss  which  enrich  the 
regions  and  gladden  the  society  of  the  celestial  worlds.  In  this 
point  of  view,  what  a glorious  and  amiable  Being  does  the  eternal 
Jehovah  appear!  “ God  is  love.”  This  is  his  name  and  his 
memorial  in  all  generations  and  throughout  all  worlds.  Supremely 
happy  in  himself,  and  independent  of  all  his  creatures,  his  grand 
design  in  forming  and  arranging  so  many  worlds  could  only  be  to 
display  the  riches  of  his  beneficence,  and  to  impart  felicity,  in  all 
its  diversified  forms,  to  countless  orders  of  intellectual  beings, 
and  to  every  rank  of  perceptive  existence.  And  how  extensive 
his  goodness  is,  not  only  throughout  the  planetary  system,  but 
over  all  the  regions  of  universal  nature,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
tongues  of  men  or  angels  to  declare,  or  the  highest  powers  of 
intelligence  to  conceive.  But  of  this  we  are  certain,  that 
“ Jehovah  is  good  to  all” — that  “ his  bounty  is  great  above  the 
heavens” — and  that  “ his  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his  works.” 


CHAPTER  VI. 

\ ■■  ■ ’ o 

SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  PLANETARY 
SYSTEM. 

Having,  in  the  preceding  pages,  given  a brief  description  of  the 
principal  facts  and  phenomena  connected  with  the  solar  system, 
and  offered  a few  reflections  suggested  by  the  subject,  it  may 
not  be  inexpedient  to  place  before  the  reader  a summary  view  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  bodies  belonging  to  this  system,  as  com- 
pared with  the  population  and  magnitude  of  the  globe  on  which 
we  live.  In  this  summary  statement,  I shall  chiefly  attend  to 
the  area  or  superficial  contents  of  the  different  planets,  which  is 
the  only  accurate  view  we  can  take  of  their  magnitudes,  when 
we  compare  them  with  each  other  as  habitable  worlds.  The 
population  of  the  different  globes  is  estimated,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing descriptions,  at  the  rate  of  280  inhabitants  to  a square  mile, 
which  is  the  rate  of  population  in  England,  and  yet  this  country 
is  by  no  means  overstocked  with  inhabitants,  but  could  contain, 
perhaps,  double  its  present  population. 


SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


285 


From  the  following  statement,  the  real  magnitude  of  all  the 
moving  bodies  connected  with  the  solar  system  may  at  once  be 
perceived. 


Square  Miles. 

Population. 

S)lid  Contents. 

Mercury 

32,000,000 

8,960,000,000 

17,157,324,800 

Venus  

191,134,944 

53,500,000,000 

248,475,427,200 

Mars 

55,417,824 

15,500,000,000 

38,792,000,000 

Vesta 

229,000 

64,000,000 

10,035,000 

Juno 

6,380,000 

1,786,000,000 

1,515,250.000 

Ceres 

8,285,580 

2,319,962,400 

2,242,630,320 

Pallas 

14,000,000 

4,000,000,000 

4,900,000,000 

Jupiter 

24,884,000,000 

6,967,520,000,000 

368,283.200,000,000 

Saturn 

19,600,000,000 

5,488,000,000,000 

261,326,800,000,000 

Outer  ring  of  Saturn 
Inner  ring  .... 

9,058,803,600 

19,791,561,636 

| 8,141,963,826,080 

1,442,518,261,800 

Edges  of  the  rings  . 
Uranus  

228,077,000 

3,848,460,000 

1,077,568,800,000 

22,437,804,620,000 

The  Moon  .... 

15,000,000 

4,200,000,000 

26,673,000,000 

5,455,000,000 

45,693,970,126 

Satellites  of  Jupiter  . 

95,000,000 

Satellites  of  Saturn  . 

197,920,800 

55,417,824,000 

98,9^0,400,000 

Satellites  of  Uranus  . 

169,646,400 

47,500,992,000 

84,823,200,000 

Amount .... 

78,195,916,784 

21,894,974,404,480 

| 654,038,348,119,246 

If  we  wish  to  ascertain  what  proportion  these  magnitudes 
bear  to  the  amplitude  of  our  own  globe,  we  have  only  to  divide 
the  different  amounts  stated  at  the  bottom  of  the  table,  by  the 
area,  solidity,  or  population  of  the  earth.  The  amount  of  area, 
or  the  superficial  contents  of  all  the  planets,  primary  and 
secondary,  is  78,195,916,784;  or,  above  seventy -eight  thousand 
millions  of  square  miles.  If  this  sum  be  divided  by  197,000,000 
— the  number  of  square  miles  on  the  surface  of  our  globe — the 
quotient  will  be  397 ; showing  that  the  surfaces  of  these  globes 
are  397  times  more  expansive  than  the  whole  surface  of  the 
terraqueous  globe;  or,  in  other  words,  that  they  contain  an 
amplitude  of  space  for  animated  beings  equal  to  nearly  four 
hundred  worlds  such  as  ours.  If  we  divide  the  same  amount  by 
49,000,000 — the  number  of  square  miles  in  the  habitable  parts 
of  the  earth — the  quotient  will  be  1595;  showing  that  the  sur- 
face of  all  the  planets  contains  a space  equal  to  one  thousand,  five 
hundred,  and  ninety-five  times  the  area  of  all  the  continents  and 
islands  of  our  globe.  If  the  amount  of  the  population  which  the 
planets  might  contain — namely,  21,894,974,404,480,  or  nearly 
twenty-two  billions , be  divided  by  800,000,000 — the  population 
of  the  earth — the  quotient  will  be  27,368;  which  shows  that  the 


286  COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  THE  CELESTIAL  BODIES. 


planetary  globes  could  contain  a population  more  than  twenty- 
seven  thousand  times  the  population  of  our  globe;  in  other  words, 
if  peopled  in  the  proportion  of  England,  they  are  equivalent  to 
twenty-seven  thousand  worlds  such  as  ours  in  its  present  state 
of  population.  The  amount  of  the  third  column  expresses  the 
number  of  solid  miles  comprised  in  all  the  planets,  which  is, 
654,038,348, 1 19,246,  or  more  than  six  hundred  and  fifty  four 
billions . If  this  number  be  divided  by  263,000,000,000 — the 
number  of  cubical  miles  in  the  earth — the  quotient  will  be  2483; 
which  shows  that  the  solid  bulk  of  the  other  planets  is  two  thou- 
sand, four  hundred,  and  eighty- three  times  the  bulk  of  our  globe. 
Such  is  the  immense  magnitude  of  our  planetary  system,  without 
taking  into  account  either  the  sun  or  the  hundreds  of  comets 
which  have  been  observed  to  traverse  the  planetary  regions. 

Great,  however,  as  these  magnitudes  are,  they  are  far  sur- 
passed by  that  stupendous  globe  which  occupies  the  centre  of 
the  system.  The  surface  of  the  sun  contains  2,432,800,000,000 
square  miles  (nearly  billions.)  If  this  sum  be  divided  by 
197  millions — the  number  of  square  miles  on  the  earth’s  sur- 
face— the  quotient  will  be  12,350,  which  shows  that  the  surface 
of  the  sun  contains  twelve  thousand , three  hundred , and  fifty 
times  the  quantity  of  surface  on  our  globe.  If  the  same  sum  be 
divided  by  78, 195,916,784 — the  number  of  square  miles  in  all 
the  planets — the  quotient  will  be  31,  showing  that  the  area  of 
the  surface  of  the  sun  is  thirty-one  times  greater  than  the  area 
of  all  the  primary  planets,  with  their  rings  and  satellites.  The 
solid  contents  of  the  sun  amount  to  356,818,739,200,000,000,  or 
nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  billions  of  cubical  miles, 
which  number,  if  divided  by  654,038,348,119,246 — the  number 
of  solid  miles  in  all  the  planets — will  produce  a quotient  of  545, 
which  shows  that  the  sun  is  five  hundred  and  forty-five  times 
larger  than  all  the  planetary  bodies  taken  together.  Such  is  the 
vast  and  incomprehensible  magnitude  of  this  stupendous  lumi- 
nary, whose  effulgence  sheds  day  over  a retinue  of  revolving 
worlds,  and  whose  attractive  energy  controls  their  motions,  and 
preserves  them  all  in  one  harmonious  system.  If  this  immense 
globe  be  flying  through  the  regions  of  space  at  the  rate  of  sixty 
thousand  miles  an  hour,  as  is  supposed,  and  carrying  along  with 
it  all  the  planets  of  the  system,  it  presents  to  the  mind  one  of 
the  most  sublime  and  overwhelming  ideas  of  motion,  magnitude, 
and  grandeur,  which  the  scenes  of  the  universe  can  convey. 

The  comparative  magnitudes  of  the  different  bodies  in  the 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  SUN  AND  PLANETS. 


287 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  82. 


— Uranus. 


— Saturn. 


— Jupiter. 


Pallas. 
Ceres. 
Juno. 
— I Vesta. 


— Mars. 


— Mercury. 
0 Sun. 


— Earth. 

— Venus. 


288 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  EARTH 


system  are  represented  to  the  eye  in  fig.  82,  where  the  circle  at 
the  top,  No.  1,  represents  Jupiter;  No.  2,  Saturn;  No.  3,  Uranus; 
No.  4,  the  Earth;  adjacent  to  which,  on  the  left,  is  the  moon; 
No.  5,  Mars;  No.  6,  Venus;  and  No.  7,  Mercury.  The  four 
small  circles  at  the  bottom  are  the  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres, 
and  Pallas,  whose  proportional  sizes  cannot  be  accurately  repre- 
sented. The  other  small  circles  connected  with  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  Uranus  are  intended  to  represent  the  satellites  of  these 
planets,  which  in  general  may  be  estimated  as  considerably  larger 
than  our  moon.  These  comparative  magnitudes  are  only  ap- 
proximations to  the  truth;  for  it  would  require  a large  sheet, 
were  we  to  attempt  delineating  them  with  accuracy;  but  the 
figure  will  convey  to  the  eye  a general  idea  of  the  comparative 
bulks  of  these  bodies,  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  conveyed  by  a com- 
parison of  their  diameters;*  but  no  representation,  on  a plane 
surface,  can  convey  an  idea  of  the  solid  contents  of  these  globes, 
as  compared  with  each  other.  The  reader  will  perceive  the  great 
disparity  of  globes  whose  diameters  do  not  differ  very  widely 
from  each  other,  if  he  place  a globe  of  twelve  inches  diameter 
beside  one  of  eighteen  inches  diameter.  Though  these  globes 
differ  only  six  inches  in  their  diameters,  yet  he  will  at  once  per- 
ceive that  the  eighteen-inch  globe  contains  more  than  double  the 
surface  of  the  twelve-inch;  and  the  solid  space  which  it  occupies 
contains  3f  times  the  space  occupied  by  the  smaller  globe. 
Were  the  sun  to  be  represented  in  its  proportional  size  to  Jupiter 
and  the  other  planets,  it  would  fill  a space  twenty  inches  in 
diameter . On  the  same  scale  in  which  the  planets  are  delineated, 
Saturn’s  ring  would  occupy  a space  4^  inches  in  diameter.  From 
these  representations  we  may  see  how  small  a space  our  earth 
occupies  in  the  planetary  system,  and  wrhat  an  inconsiderable 
appearance  it  presents  in  comparison  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and 
Uranus.  Fig.  83  represents  the  proportional  distances  of  the 
primary  planets  from  the  sun,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that 
Saturn,  which  was  formerly  considered  the  most  distant  planet, 
occupies  nearly  the  middle  of  the  system. 

In  Fig.  84  is  represented  a comparative  view  of  the  earth 
and  the  rings  of  Saturn.  The  small  circle  at  the  right  hand  side 
represents  the  lineal  proportion  of  our  globe  to  those  stupendous 

* The  reader  will  find  a comparative  view  of  the  distances  and  magnitudes 
of  the  planets,  engraved  on  a very  large  sheet,  in  “ Burritt’s  Geography  of  the 
Heavens,”  published  at  Hartford,  North  America. 


AND  THE  KINGS  OF  SATURN. 


289 


Fig.  84. 


t; 


290 


DISTANCES  AND  MAGNITUDES 


arches,  so  that  the  eye  may  easily  perceive  that  hundreds  of 
worlds  such  as  ours  could  be  enclosed  within  such  expansive 
rings.  Fig.  85  represents  the  proportion  which  the  sun  bears  to 
the  planet  Jupiter,  the  largest  planetary  orb  in  the  system.  The 
large  circle  represents  the  sun  and  the  small  circle  Jupiter.  If 
the  earth  were  to  be  represented  on  the  same  scale,  it  would  ap- 
pear like  a point  scarcely  perceptible.  It  is  chiefly  by  the  aid 
of  such  tangible  representations,  that  the  mind  can  form  any  idea 
approximating  to  the  reality  of  such  magnitudes  and  proportions; 
and,  after  all  its  efforts,  its  views  of  such  stupendous  objects  are 
exceedingly  imperfect  and  obscure. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  THE  METHOD  BY  WHICH  THE  DISTANCES  AND  MAGNITUDES 
OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES  ARE  ASCERTAINED. 

There  is  a degree  of  scepticism  among  a certain  class  of  readers 
in  regard  to  the  conclusions  which  astronomers  have  deduced  re- 
specting the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  celestial  bodies.  They 
are  apt  to  suspect  that  the  results  they  have  deduced  are  merely 
conjectural , and  that  it  is  impossible  for  human  beings  to  arrive 
at  anything  like  certainty,  or  even  probability,  in  regard  to 
distances  so  immensely  great,  and  to  magnitudes  so  far  sur- 
passing everything  we  see  around  us  on  this  globe.  Hence  it 
is,  that  the  assertions  of  astronomers  as  to  these  points  are  apt 
to  be  called  in  question,  or  to  be  received  with  a certain  degree 
of  doubt  and  hesitation,  as  if  they  were  beyond  the  limits  of  truth 
or  probability.  And  hence  such  persons  are  anxious  to  inquire 
— “ How  can  astronomers  find  out  such  things?”  “ Tell  us  by 
what  methods  they  can  measure  the  distances  of  the  planets  and 
determine  their  bulks?”  Such  questions,  however,  are  more 
easily  proposed  than  answered ; not  from  any  difficulty  in  stating 
the  principles  on  which  astronomers  proceed  in  their  investiga- 
tions, but  from  the  impossibility,  in  many  instances,  of  conveying 
an  idea  of  these  principles  to  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the 
elements  of  geometry  and  trigonometry.  A very  slight  ac- 
quaintance with  these  branches  of  the  mathematics,  however,  is 


OF  THE  PLANETS. 


291 


sufficient  to  enable  a person  to  understand  the  mode  by  which 
the  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  determined;  but  a cer- 
tain degree  of  information  on  such  subjects  is  indispensably 
requisite,  without  which  no  satisfactory  explanation  can  be  com- 
municated. 

In  offering  a few  remarks  on  this  subject,  I shall,  in  the  first 
place,  state  certain  considerations,  level  to  the  comprehension  of 
the  general  reader,  which  prove  that  the  celestial  bodies  are 
much  further  distant  from  the  earth,  and  consequently  much 
larger,  than  they  are  generally  supposed  to  be  by  the  vulgar, 
and  those  who  are  ignorant  of  astronomical  science;  and,  in  the 
next  place,  shall  give  a brief  view  of  the  mathematical  principles 
on  which  astronomers  proceed  in  their  calculations. 

When  a common  observer  views  the  heavens  for  the  first  time, 
previous  to  having  received  any  information  on  the  subject,  he 
is  apt  to  imagine  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  are  placed  in  the 
canopy  of  the  sky  at  nearly  the  same  distance  from  the  earth, 
and  that  this  distance  is  only  a little  beyond  the  region  of  the 
clouds;  for  it  is  impossible,  merely  by  the  eye,  to  judge  of  the 
relative  distances  of  such  objects.  Previous  to  experience,  it  is 
probable  that  we  could  form  no  correct  idea  of  the  relative  dis- 
tances of  any  objects  whatever.  The  young  man  who  was  born 
blind,  and  who  was  restored  to  sight  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  by 
an  operation  performed  by  Mr.  Cheselden,  could  form  no  idea  of 
the  distances  of  the  new  objects  presented  to  his  visual  organs. 
He  supposed  everything  he  saw  touched  his  eyes,  in  the  same 
manner  as  everything  he  felt  touched  his  skin.  An  object  of  an 
inch  diameter  placed  before  his  'eyes,  which  concealed  a house 
from  his  sight,  appeared  to  him  as  large  as  the  house.  What  he 
had  judged  to  be  round  by  the  help  of  his  hands,  he  could  not 
distinguish  from  what  he  had  judged  to  be  square;  nor  could  he 
discern  by  his  eyes  whether  what  his  hands  had  perceived  to  be 
above  or  below,  was  really  above  or  below;  and  it  was  not  till 
after  two  months  that  he  could  distinguish  pictures  from  solid 
bodies.  In  like  manner,  we  are  apt  to  be  deceived  in  our  esti- 
mate of  the  distances  of  objects  by  the  eye,  particularly  of  those 
which  appear  in  the  concave  of  the  heavens;  and  reason  and 
reflection  must  supply  the  deficiency  of  our  visual  organs,  before 
we  can  arrive  at  any  definite  conclusions  respecting  objects  so 
far  beyond  our  reach. 

That  the  heavenly  bodies,  particularly  the  sun,  are  much 
greater  than  they  appear  to  the  vulgar  eye,  may  be  proved  by 

u 2 


292  REQUISITES  FOR  ASCERTAINING  DISTANCES. 

the  following  consideration:  When  the  sun  rises  due  east  in  the 
morning,  his  orb  appears  just  as  large  as  it  does  when  he  comes 
to  the  meridian  at  midday.  Yet  it  can  be  shown  that  the  sun, 
when  he  is  on  our  meridian,  is  about  4000  miles  nearer  us 
than  when  he  rose  in  the  morning.  This  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  following  figure. 

Fig.  86. 


Let  A B C D represent  the  earth,  and  S the  sun  at  the  point 
of  his  rising.  Suppose  the  line,  A E C,  to  represent  the  meri- 
dian of  a certain  place,  and  A or  E the  place  of  a spectator. 
When  the  sun,  in  his  apparent  diurnal  motion,  comes  opposite 
the  meridian  A C,  he  is  a whole  semi- diameter  of  the  earth 
nearer  the  spectator  at  E , than  when  he  appeared  in  the  eastern 
horizon.  This  semi-diameter  is  represented  by  the  lines  A H, 
E B,  C Gr,  and  is  equal  to  3965  miles.  Now  were  the  sun  only 
four  thousand  miles  distant  from  the  earth,  and  consequently 
8000  miles  from  us  at  his  rising,  he  would  be  nearly  4000  miles 
nearer  us  when  on  the  meridian  than  at  his  rising;  and  conse- 
quently he  would  appear  twice  the  diameter,  and  four  times  as 
large  in  surface,  as  he  does  at  the  time  of  his  rising.  But  obser- 
vation proves  that  there  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  his  appa- 
rent magnitude  in  these  different  positions.  Therefore  the  sun 
must  be  much  further  distant  from  the  earth  than  4000  miles. 
If  his  distance  were  only  120,000  miles,  his  apparent  diameter 
would  appear  ^ part  broader  when  on  the  meridian  than  at  the 
time  of  his  rising,  and  the  difference  could  easily  be  determined; 
but  no  such  difference  is  perceptible.  Therefore  the  sun  is  still 
further  distant  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  miles. 


BULK  OF  THE  SUN. 


293 


And,  as  the  real  size  of  any  body  is  in  proportion  to  its  distance, 
compared  with  its  apparent  size,  the  sun  must,  from  this  consi- 
deration alone,  be  more  than  1200  miles  in  diameter,  and  must 
contain  more  than  nine  hundred  millions  of  cubical  miles.  But 
how  much  greater  his  distance  and  magnitude  are  than  what  is 
nowr  stated  cannot  be  determined  from  such  observations. 

The  above  idea  might  perhaps  be  more  tangibly  illustrated  by 
surrounding  a small  terrestrial  globe  with  a circle,  or  hoop, 
about  two  or  three  times  its  diameter.  This  hoop  would  repre- 
sent the  apparent  circuit  of  the  sun  round  the  earth;  and  it 
would  be  at  once  perceived  that  the  point  of  the  hoop  which  is 
directly  opposite  the  southern  parts  of  the  globe,  or  the  brazen 
meridian,  is  much  nearer  those  parts  than  the  point  of  the  hoop 
which  is  opposite  the  eastern  parts  of  the  globe,  or  nearest  the 
sign  Aries , as  marked  on  the  wooden  horizon, — the  difference 
being  exactly  the  half  diameter  of  the  globe. 

The  same  idea  may  be  illustrated  as  follows: — Suppose  a 
spectator  at  Edinburgh,  which  may  be  represented  by  the  point 
A (fig.  86),  and  another  at  Cape  Town,  in  the  southern  extremity 
of  Africa,  about  the  time  of  our  winter  solstice,  which  position 
may  be  represented  by  the  point  E;  both  spectators  might  see 
the  sun  at  the  same  moment,  and  he  would  appear  exactly  of  the 
same  size  from  both  positions.  Yet  such  spectators  would  be 
more  than  4000  miles  distant  from  each  other  in  a straight  line , 
and  the  observer  at  Cape  Town  would  be  several  thousands  of 
miles  nearer  the  sun  than  the  one  at  Edinburgh.  Now,  if  the 
sun  were  only  a few  thousands  of  miles  from  the  earth,  he  would 
appear  of  a very  different  magnitude  to  observers  removed  so  far 
from  each  other,  which  is  contrary  to  fact.  Consequently,  the 
sun  must  be  at  a very  great  distance  from  the  earth,  and  his  real 
size  proportionable  to  that  distance.  For  experience  proves  that 
objects,  which  are  of  great  magnitude,  may  appear  comparatively 
small  when  removed  from  us  to  a great  distance.  The  lofty 
vessel,  as  it  recedes  from  the  coast  towards  the  ocean,  gradually 
diminishes  in  its  apparent  size,  till  at  length  it  appears  as  a 
scarcely  distinguishable  speck  on  the  verge  of  the  horizon;  and 
the  aeronaut,  with  his  balloon,  when  they  have  ascended  beyond 
the  region  of  the  clouds,  appear  only  as  a small  dusky  spot  on 
the  canopy  of  the  sky,  and  sometimes  entirely  disappear. 

The  following  argument,  which  is  level  to  the  comprehension 
of  every  reflecting  mind,  proves  that  the  sun  is  larger  than  the 
whole  globe  of  the  earth,  and  that  the  moon  is  considerably  less. 


294 


MAGNITUDES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON 


Previous  to  the  application  of  the  argument  to  which  I allude,  it 
may  be  proper  to  illustrate  the  law  of  shadows . The  law  by 
which  the  shadows  of  globes  are  projected  is  as  follows: — When 
the  luminous  body  is  larger  in  diameter  than  the  opaque  body,  the 
shadow  which  it  projects  converges  to  a point  which  is  the  vertex 
of  a cone,  as  in  fig.  87.  When  the  luminous  and  the  opaque  body 
are  of  an  equal  size,  the  shadow  is  cylindrical,  and  passes  on  from 
the  opaque  body  to  an  indefinite  extent,  as  represented  in  fig.  88. 
When  the  luminous  body  is  less  than  the  opaque,  the  shadow  ex- 
tends in  breadth  beyond  the  opaque  body,  and  grows  broader 
and  broader,  in  proportion  to  its  distance  from  the  opaque  globe, 
as  in  fig.  89.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  holding  a ball,  three 
or  four  inches  in  diameter,  opposite  to  a candle,  when  the  shadow 
of  the  ball  will  be  seen  to  be  larger  in  diameter,  in  proportion  to 
the  distance  of  the  wall  or  screen  on  which  the  shadow  is  pro- 
jected. Now  it  is  well  known,  and  will  readily  be  admitted,  that 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the  earth  falling 
upon  the  moon,  when  the  sun,  earth,  and  moon  are  nearly  in  a 
straight  line  with  respect  to  each  other;  and  that  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the  moon  falling  upon  a cer- 
tain portion  of  the  earth.  Let  S (fig.  90)  represent  the  sun;  E , 


DETERMINED  FROM  ECLIPSES. 


295 


the  earth;  and  M , the  moon,  nearly  in  a straight  line,  which  is 
the  real  position  of  these  three  bodies  in  an  eclipse  of  the  moon. 
The  shadow  of  the  earth,  at  the  distance  of  the  moon,  is  found 
to  be  of  a less  diameter  than  the  diameter  of  the  earth.  This  is 
ascertained  by  the  time  which  the  moon  takes  in  passing  through 
the  shadow.  The  real  breadth  of  that  shadow,  at  the  moon’s  dis- 
tance from  the  earth,  is  about  .5900  miles,  sometimes  more  and 
sometimes  less,  according  as  the  moon  is  nearer  to  or  further 
from  the  earth;  but  the  diameter  of  the  earth  is  nearly  8000 
miles;  therefore  the  shadow  of  the  earth  gradually  decreases  in 
breadth  in  its  progress  through  space,  and,  by  calculation,  it  is 
found  that  it  terminates  in  a point,  as  in  fig.  87,  at  the  distance 
of  about  850,000  miles.  But  when  a luminous  globe  causes  the 
shadow  of  an  opaque  globe  to  converge  towards  a point,  as  in 
fig.  87,  the  luminous  body  must  be  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
opaque  one.  The  sun  is  the  luminous  body,  which  causes  the 
earth  to  project  a shadow  on  the  moon;  this  shadow,  at  the  moon, 
is  less  in  breadth  than  the  diameter  of  the  earth;  therefore  it 
inevitably  follows,  that  the  sun  is  larger  than  the  earth;  but  how 
much  larger  cannot  be  determined  from  such  considerations. 

From  the  same  premises  it  necessarily  follows  that  the  moon 
is  less  than  the  earth.  For  the  moon  is  sometimes  completely 
covered  by  the  shadow  of  the  earth,  although  this  shadow  is  less 
than  the  earth’s  diameter,  and  not  only  so,  but  sometimes  takes 
an  hour  or  two  in  passing  through  the  shadow.  If  the  sun  were 
only  equal  to  the  earth  in  size,  the  earth’s  shadow  would  be  pro- 
jected to  an  indefinite  extent,  and  be  always  of  the  same  breadth, 
and  might  sometimes  eclipse  the  planet  Mars,  when  in  opposition 
to  the  sun.  If  the  sun  were  less  than  the  earth,  the  shadow  of 
the  earth  would  increase  in  bulk,  the  further  it  extended  through 
space,  (as  represented  in  fig.  89,)  and  would  eclipse  the  great 
planets,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  with  all  their  moons, 
when  they  happened  to  be  near  their  opposition  to  the  sun;  and 
in  this  case  they  would  be  deprived  of  the  light  of  the  sun  for 
many  days  together.  In  such  a case,  too,  the  sun  would  some- 
times be  eclipsed  to  the  earth  by  the  planet  Venus,  when  in  its 
inferior  conjunction  with  that  luminary ; an  eclipse  which  might 
cause  a total  darkness  of  several  hours’  continuance.  In  short, 
if  the  sun  were  less  than  any  one  of  the  planets,  the  system  would 
be  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  shadows  of  all  these  bodies 
increasing  in  proportion  to  their  distance,  and  interrupting, 
periodically,  for  a length  of  time,  the  communications  of  light 


296 


TRIGONOMETRICAL  DEFINITIONS. 


and  heat.  But  as  none  of  these  things  ever  happen,  it  is  evident 
that  the  sun  is  much  larger  than  the  whole  terraqueous  globe. 

All  that  requires  to  be  taken  for  granted  by  the  unlearned 
reader  in  this  argument  is,  that  the  earth  is  a globular  body; 
that  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the  earth 
falling  upon  that  orb;  and  that  the  shadow  of  the  earth,  at  the 
distance  of  the  moon,  is  of  less  breadth  than  the  earth’s  diameter. 
The  two  first  positions  will  readily  be  admitted;  and  the  third 
position,  respecting  the  breadth  of  the  earth’s  shadow,  may  be 
received  on  the  ground  of  what  has  been  above  stated,  and  on 
the  authority  of  astronomers.  For,  if  they  were  ignorant  of  this 
circumstance,  they  could  not  calculate  eclipses  with  so  much 
accuracy  as  they  do,  and  predict  the  precise  moment  of  the 
beginning  and  end  of  a lunar  eclipse.  If,  then,  any  individual 
is  convinced,  from  the  consideration  above  stated,  that  the  sun 
must  be  much  larger  than  the  earth,  he  has  advanced  one  step  in 
his  conceptions  of  the  magnificence  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
may  rest  with  confidence  on  the  assertions  of  astronomers  in  refer- 
ence to  the  real  distances  and  magnitudes  of  these  orbs,  although 
he  may  not  be  acquainted  with  the  mathematical  principles  and 
investigations  on  which  their  calculations  proceed. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  illustration  of  the  trigonometrical 
principles  on  which  astronomers  proceed  in  determining  the  true 
distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  it  may  be  requisite,  for  the 
unlearned  reader,  to  give  a description  of  the  nature  of  angles, 
and  the  mode  by  which  they  are  measured.  An  angle  is  the 
opening  between  any  two  lines  which  touch  each  other  in  a point; 
and  the  width  of  the  opening  determines  the  extent  of  the  angle, 
or  the  number  of  degrees,  or  minutes,  it  contains.  Thus,  if  we 
open  a pair  of  compasses,  the  legs  of  which  may  be  represented 
by  A B,  B C,  fig.  91,  an  angle  is  formed,  of  different  dimensions, 
according  as  the  extremities  of  the  legs  are  removed  further  from, 
or  brought  nearer  to,  each  other.  If  the  legs  are  made  to  stand 
perpendicular  to  each  other,  as  in  fig.  92,  the  angle  is  said  to  be 
a right  angle , and  contains  ninety  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of 
a circle.  The  walls  of  a room  generally  stand  at  right  angles  to 
the  floor.  If  the  legs  be  separated  more  than  a right  angle,  they 
form  what  is  termed  an  obtuse  angle , as  in  fig.  93.  When  the 
angle  is  less  than  a right  angle,  it  is  called  an  acute  angle , as  in 
fig.  91,  and,  consequently,  contains  a less  number  of  degrees  than 
ninety.  All  angles  are  measured  by  the  arc  of  a circle  described 
on  the  angular  point;  and  every  circle,  whether  great  or  small, 


TRIGONOMETRICAL  DEFINITIONS. 


297 


97 

A 


298 


NATURE  OF  PARALLAXES. 


is  divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees.  Thus,  if  I want 
to  know  the  quantity  of  an  angle  at  K (fig.  94),  I place  one  point 
of  the  compasses  at  the  angular  point  K , and  describe  the  arc  of 
a circle  between  the  two  sides,  L K,  K M,  and  whatever  number 
of  degrees  of  a circle  is  contained  between  them,  is  the  quantity 
or  measure  of  the  angle.  If,  as  in  the  present  case,  the  angle 
contains  the  eighth  part  of  a circle,  or  half  a right  angle,  it  is 
said  to  be  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  A triangle  is  a figure 
which  contains  three  angles,  and  three  sides,  as  0 P Q,  fig.  95.  It 
is  demonstrated  by  mathematicians,  that  the  three  angles  of  every 
triangle,  whatever  proportion  these  angles  may  bear  to  each  other, 
are  exactly  equal  to  two  right  angles,  or  180  degrees.  Thus,  in  the 
triangle,  O P Q,  the  angle  at  Q is  a right  angle,  or  ninety  degrees, 
and  the  other  two  angles,  O and  P,  are,  together,  equal  to  ninety 
degrees;  so  that,  if  one  of  these  angles  be  known,  the  other  is  found 
by  subtracting  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  known  angle  from 
ninety.  Thus,  if  the  angle  atPbe  equal  to  thirty  degrees,  the  angle 
at  O will  be  equal  to  sixty  degrees.  Hence,  if  any  two  angles  of  a 
triangle  be  known,  the  third  may  be  found  by  subtracting  the  sum 
of  the  two  known  angles  from  180  degrees,  the  remainder  will  be 
the  number  of  degrees  in  the  third  angle.  All  triangles  have  their 
greatest  sides  opposite  to  their  greatest  angles;  and  if  all  the  angles 
of  the  triangle  be  equal,  the  sides  will  also  be  equal  to  each  other. 

If  any  three  of  the  six  parts  of  a triangle  he  known , (except- 
ing the  three  angles,)  all  the  other  parts  may  he  known  from 
them . Thus,  if  the  side  P Q,  and  the  angles  at  P and  Q,  be 
known,  we  can  find  the  angle  at  0,  and  the  length  of  the  sides 
P 0 and  0 Q.  It  is  on  this  general  principle  that  the  distances 
and  magnitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  determined. 

In  order  to  understand  and  apply  this  principle,  it  is  necessary 
that  we  explain  the  nature  of  a parallax . A parallax  denotes 
the  change  of  the  apparent  place  of  any  heavenly  body,  caused 
by  being  seen  from  different  points  of  view.  This  may  be  illus- 
trated by  terrestrial  objects  as  follows: — Suppose  a tree  40  or  50 
yards  distant  from  two  spectators,  who  are  15  or  20  yards  dis- 
tant from  each  other, — the  one  will  perceive  the  tree  in  a line 
with  certain  objects  near  the  horizon,  which  are  considerably 
distant  from  those  which  appear  in  the  direction  of  the  tree,  as 
viewed  from  the  station  occupied  by  the  other  spectator.  The 
difference  between  the  two  points  near  the  horizon  where  the 
tree  appears  to  coincide  to  the  two  different  spectators,  is  the 
parallax  of  the  object.  If  the  tree  were  only  20  or  25  yards 
distant,  the  parallax  would  be  twice  as  large;  or,  in  other  words, 


moon’s  horizontal  parallax. 


299 


the  points  in  the  horizon  where  it  was  seen  by  the  two  spectators 
would  be  double  the  distance,  as  in  the  former  case;  and  if  the 
tree  were  two  or  three  hundred  yards  distant,  the  parallax  would 
be  proportion  ably  small.  Or,  suppose  two  persons  sitting  near 
each  other  at  one  side  of  a room,  and  a candle  placed  on  a table 
in  the  middle  of  the  room,  the  points  on  the  opposite  wall  where 
the  candle  would  appear  to  each  of  the  two  persons  would  be 
considerably  distant  from  each  other;  and  this  distance  may  be 
called  the  parallax  of  the  candle  as  viewed  by  the  two  observers. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  fig.  96,  where  R and  S may  repre- 
sent the  positions  of  the  observers;  a , the  candle  or  tree;  and 
T and  U,  the  points  on  the  opposite  wall,  or  in  the  horizon, 
where  the  candle  or  the  tree  appears  to  the  respective  observers. 
The  observer  at  R sees  the  intermediate  object  at  U ; and  the 
one  at  S sees  it  in  the  direction  S T . The  angle  R a S,  which 
is  equal  to  the  angle  T a U9  is  called  the  angle  of  parallax,  which 
is  the  difference  of  position  in  which  the  object  is  seen  by  the 
two  observers.  If,  then,  the  distance  between  the  observers 
R S be  known,  and  the  quantity  of  the  angle  R a S,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  observers  and  the  object  can  also  be  known  by 
calculation. 

Let  us  now  apply  this  principle  to  the  heavenly  bodies.  In 
fig.  97,  let  the  semicircle  S,  T9  A , R9  S9  represent  a section  of 
the  concave  of  the  heavens;  the  middle  circle  E C9  the  earth; 
M,  the  moon;  C9  the  centre  of  the  earth;  and  E H the  sensible 
horizon  of  a spectator  at  E.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  moon  be 
viewed  from  the  earth,  at  the  point  E9  she  will  be  seen  in  the 
horizon  at  the  point  H ; but  were  she  viewed  at  the  same  time 
from  C,  the  centre  of  the  earth,  she  would  appear  among  the 
stars  at  the  point  K , in  a more  elevated  position  than  when  seen 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  at  E . The  difference  between 
those  two  apparent  positions  of  the  moon,  or  the  angle  K M H9 
is  called  the  moon’s  horizontal  parallax.  Astronomers  know, 
from  calculation,  in  what  point  of  the  heavens  the  moon  would 
appear  as  viewed  from  the  earth’s  centre;  and  they  know,  from 
actual  observation,  where  she  appears  as  viewed  from  the  surface; 
and  therefore  can  find  the  difference  of  the  two  positions,  or  the 
angle  of  parallax.  This  angle  might  likewise  be  found  by  sup- 
posing two  spectators  on  different  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface, 
viewing  the  moon  at  the  same  time.  Suppose  a spectator  at  E9 
who  sees  the  moon  in  the  horizon  at  H ; and  another  observer, 
on  the  same  meridian,  at  B , who  sees  her  in  his  zenith  at  K; 
the  parallax,  as  formerly,  will  be  K H. 


300 


HEIGHTS  AND  DISTANCES 


The  parallax  of  a heavenly  body  decreases  in  proportion  to  its 
altitude  above  the  horizon,  and  at  the  zenith  ( A ) it  is  nothing; 
for  the  line  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  coincides  with  that  from 
the  surface,  as  C E A.  Thus,  the  parallax  of  the  moon  at 
N (a  b ) is  less  than  the  horizontal  parallax,  K H ; but  from  the 
parallax  observed  at  any  altitude,  the  horizontal  parallax  can  be 
deduced;  and  it  is  from  this  parallax  that  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  or  any  other  heavenly  body,  is  determined.  Ihe  greater 
the  distance  of  any  body  from  the  earth , the  less  is  its  parallax . 
Thus,  the  heavenly  body  G , which  is  further  from  the  earth  than 
the  moon,  has  a less  parallax  ( c d)  than  that  of  the  moon,  K H. 

Now,  the  parallax  of  the  moon  being  known,  it  is  easy  to  find 
the  distance  of  that  orb  from  the  earth;  for  in  every  triangle  if 
one  side  and  two  angles  be  known,  the  other  angle  and  the  other 
two  sides  can  also  be  found.  In  the  present  case,  we  have  a 
triangle,  E M C,  in  which  the  side,  E C , or  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  earth,  is  known.  The  angle,  ME  (7,  is  a right  angle,  or 
90  degrees;  and  the  parallactic  angle,  E M C,  is  supposed  to  be 
found  by  observation.  From  these  data , by  an  easy  trigonome- 
trical calculation,  the  length  of  the  side,  C M , or  the  distance  of 
the  moon  from  the  centre  of  the  earth,  can  be  determined  with 
the  utmost  precision,  provided  the  angle  of  parallax  has  been 
accurately  ascertained. 

Before  proceeding  to  illustrate,  by  examples,  the  method  of 
calculating  the  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  when  the  parallax 
is  found,  I shall  present  an  example  or  two  of  the  mode  of  com- 
puting the  heights  and  distances  of  terrestrial  objects,  the  prin- 
ciple on  which  we  proceed  being  the  same  in  both  cases.  Suppose 
it  were  required  to  find  the  height  of  the  tower,  C B , (fig.  98,) 
we  first  measure  the  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  tower,  B , 
to  a station  at  the  point  A , which  suppose  to  be  100  feet. 
From  this  station,  by  a quadrant,  or  other  angular  instrument, 
we  take  the  angle  of  elevation  of  the  top  of  the  tower,  or  the 
angle,  CAB , which  suppose  to  be  47^  degrees.  Here  we  have 
a triangle  in  which  we  have  one  side,  A J5,  and  two  angles — 
namely,  the  angle  at  A= 47-^° ; and  the  angle  at  B , which  is  a 
right  angle,  or  90°,  as  the  tower  is  supposed  to  stand  perpendi- 
cular to  the  ground;  therefore  the  side,  CB,  which  is  the  height 
of  the  tower,  can  be  found,  and  likewise  the  other  side  A C,  if 
required.  To  find  C B,  the  height  of  the  tower,  we  make  A B 
the  radius  of  the  circle,  a portion  of  which  measures  the  angle,  A; 
and  the  side  B C,  or  the  height  of  the  tower,  becomes  the  tangent 


OF  TERRESTRIAL  OBJECTS. 


301 


of  that  angle.  And  as  there  is  a certain  known  proportion  be- 
tween the  radius  of  every  circle  and  the  tangent,  the  height  of 
the  tower  will  be  found  by  the  following  proportion: — As  the 
radius  : is  to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A , 47^°  : : so  is  the  side 
A B,  100  feet  : to  C B,  the  height  of  the  tower=109^  feet.  The 
following  is  the  calculation  by  logarithms:  — 

Logarithm  of  the  2nd  term — Tangent  of  47j°  ...  100379475 


Logarithm  of  A B— 100  feet — 3rd  term  2*0000000 

12*0379475 

Logarithm  of  radius — 1st  term  10*0000000 

Logarithm  of  C B , 4th  term=109-i-  feet=  2*0379475 


By  this  calculation,  the  height  of  the  tower  is  found  with  the 
greatest  nicety,  provided  the  measurement  of  the  side,  A B , and 
the  angle,  A , have  been  taken  with  accuracy. 

Again,  suppose  it  were  required  to  measure  the  distance  be- 
tween a tree,  E , and  a house,  D , on  the  opposite  side  of  a river. 
We  first  measure  a space  from  E to  F \ (fig.  99,)  suppose  200 
yards,  in  a right  line,  and  then  find  the  angles,  E and  Fy  at  each 
end  of  this  line.  Suppose  the  angle  at  A to  be  73  degrees,  and 
the  angle  at  F \ 68°.  As  all  the  angles  of  a triangle  are  equal  to 
two  right  angles,  or  180°,  if  we  add  these  two  angles,  and  sub- 
tract their  sum  from  180°,  the  remainder,  39°,  will  be  the  measure 
of  the  angle  at  D.  It  is  a demonstrated  proposition  in  trigono- 
metry, that  in  any  plane  triangle , the  sides  are  in  the  same  pro - 
portion  as  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles . A sine  is  a line  drawn 
through  one  extremity  of  an  arc  perpendicular  upon  the  diameter, 
or  radius,  passing  through  the  other  extremity,  as  a d , (fig.  98.) 
In  order,  then,  to  find  the  distance  ( E D)  between  the  tree  and 
the  house  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  we  state  the  following 
proportion: — As  the  sine  of  Z>,  38°,  the  angle  opposite  to  E E , 
the  known  side  : is  to  the  sine  of  the  angle,  F,  68°,  opposite  the 
side  sought,  ED::  so  is  the  length  of  the  line,  E F—  200 
yards  : to  the  distance,  E D , between  the  tree  and  the  house= 
294f  yards.  The  following  is  the  operation  by  logarithms: — 


2nd  term — Sine  of  angle,  ^=68° 9*9671659 

3rd  term — E F= 200  yards.  Log 2*3010300 

12*2689159 

1st  term — Sine  of  angle,  2>=39°  9*7988718 

4th  term— D E= 294f  yards= 2*4693241 


302 


DISTANCE  OF  THE  MOON. 


In  these  examples  the  logarithms  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  terms  of 
the  proportion  are  added,  and  from  their  sum  the  logarithm  of 
the  1st  term  is  subtracted,  which  leaves  the  logarithm  of  the  4th 
term;  as  in  common  numbers,  the  2nd  and  3rd  terms  are  multi- 
plied together,  and  their  product  divided  by  the  first  term;  ad- 
dition of  logarithms  corresponding  to  multiplication  of  whole 
numbers,  and  subtraction  to  division.  The  logarithms  of  common 
numbers,  and  of  sines  and  tangents,  are  found  in  tables  prepared 
for  the  purposes  of  calculation. 

I shall  now  state  an  example  or  two  in  reference  to  the  celes- 
tial bodies.  Suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  distance  of  the 
moon  from  the  earth.  In  fig.  100,  let  E C represent  the  earth; 
M,  the  moon;  E , the  place  of  a spectator  observing  the  moon  in 
his  sensible  horizon;  E M b,  and  C M a,  the  direction  of  the 
moon  as  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  earth,  at  C,  or  from  its  sur- 
face, at  B ; a , the  place  of  the  moon  as  seen  from  the  centre;  and 


DIAMETER  OF  THE  MOON. 


303 


b,  its  place  as  seen  from  its  surface,  at  E ; or,  in  other  words, 
the  moon’s  horizontal  parallax.  This  parallax,  at  the  moon’s 
mean  distance  from  the  earth,  is  found  to  be  57  minutes, 
5 seconds.  Here,  then,  we  have  a triangle,  C E M,  of  which 
we  have  one  side  and  two  angles  given.  The  side  given  is  the 
semi-diameter  of  the  earth,  E C,  which  is  equal  to  3965  miles; 
the  angle  at  E is  a right  angle,  or  90  degrees;  for  it  forms  a 
tangent  to  the  circle  at  E;  the  angle  at  M is  the  horizontal 
parallax,  which  is  found  by  observation.  From  these  data,  the 
side  M C,  or  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  may  be  easily  found.  If  we  make  C M radius,  E C will 
be  the  sine  of  the  angle,  M;  and  the  distance  of  the  moon  is  found 
from  the  following  proportion: — As  E (7,  the  sine  of  57  minutes, 
5 seconds  : is  to  3965,  the  number  of  miles  in  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  earth  : : so  is  M C,  the  radius  : to  a fourth  number, 
238,800  = M C = the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  centre  of 
the  earth. 

2nd  term — 3965=the  earth’s  semi-diameter  ...  3*598243 


3rd  term — Radius  10  000000 

13*598243 

1st  term — Sine  of  57  minutes,  5 seconds  8*220215 


M (7,  distance  of  the  moon,  238,800  miles=  ...  5*378028 

According  to  this  calculation,  the  moon  is  two  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  thousand,  eight  hundred  miles  from  the  earth.  In 
round  numbers,  we  generally  say  that  the  moon  is  240,000  miles 
distant;  and,  in  point  of  fact,  she  is  sometimes  considerably  more 
than  240,000  miles  distant,  and  sometimes  less  than  the  number 
above  stated,  as  she  moves  in  an  elliptical  orbit;  her  horizontal 
parallax  varying  from  54  to  above  60  minutes. 

To  find  the  Diameter  of  the  Moon. — In  fig.  101,  let  A G B re- 
present the  moon;  and  C,  an  observer  at  the  earth.  The  apparent 
diameter  of  the  moon  at  its  mean  distance,  as  measured  by  a 
micrometer,  is  31  minutes,  26  seconds,  represented  by  the  angle, 
A C B;  the  half  of  this,  or  the  angle  formed  by  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  moon,  A C G,  is  15  minutes,  43  seconds.  The  distance 
of  the  moon,  G C,  is  supposed  to  be  found,  as  above  stated — 
namely,  238,800  miles.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  angle,  C A G, 
which  is  a right  angle,  and  the  angle,  A C G=  15'  43",  which  is 
found  by  observation.;  and  the  side  C G , or  the  distance  of  the 
moon  from  the  earth.  We  can  therefore  find  the  side  A G , 


304  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CELESTIAL  DISTANCES. 

or  the  semi-diameter  of  the  moon,  by  the  following  propor- 
tion:— As  radius  : is  to  C G , the  distance  of  the  moon,  238,800 
miles  : : so  is  the  sine  of  A C G , 15'  43"  : to  the  number  of  miles 
contained  in  the  moon’s  semi*  diameter,  A G— 1091^,  which  being 
doubled,  gives  2183  miles  as  the  diameter  of  the  moon. 


2nd  term — C {7=238-800 — Log 5-378028 

3rd  term — Sine  of  A C Gt  15'  43"  7*660059 


13-038087 

1st  term — Radius  10-000000 

Semi-diameter  of  the  moon,  10911=  3*038087 

2 


Diameter  of  the  moon=  ...  2183 

Such  is  the  general  mode  by  which  the  distances  and  magni- 
tudes of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  calculated.  I am  aware  that  the 
general  reader,  who  is  unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  trigo- 
nometry, may  find  a little  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  state- 
ments and  calculations  given  above;  but  my  design  simply  was 
to  convey  an  idea  of  the  principle  on  which  astronomers  proceed 
in  their  computations  of  the  distances  and  bulks  of  the  celestial 
orbs,  and  to  excite  those  who  are  anxious  to  understand  the 
subject,  to  engage  in  the  study  of  plane  trigonometry — a study 
which  presents  no  great  difficulty  to  any  one  who  is  already  a 
proficient  in  common  arithmetic.  I conclude  the  subject  with 
the  following 

General  Remarks . — 1 . Before  the  bulks  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
can  be  determined,  their  distances  from  the  earth  must  first  be 
ascertained.  When  their  distances  are  found,  it  is  quite  an  easy 
matter  to  determine  their  real  bulks  from  their  apparent  mag- 
nitudes. 2.  The  semi-diameter  of  the  earth  forms  the  ground- 
work of  all  our  calculations  respecting  the  distances  of  the  celestial 
orbs.  Were  we  ignorant  of  the  dimensions  of  the  earth,  we  could 
not  find  the  real  distance  and  magnitude  of  any  heavenly  body ; 
and  it  is  owing  to  the  comparatively  small  diameter  of  the  earth 
that  it  becomes  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  determine,  with 
accuracy,  the  parallaxes  of  certain  heavenly  bodies.  Were  we 
placed  on  a planet  such  as  J upiter,  whose  diameter  is  more  than 
eleven  times  that  of  our  globe,  it  would  be  much  more  easy  to 
find  the  parallaxes  of  the  sun  and  planets.  The  parallaxes  of 
J upiter’s  moons,  as  observed  from  that  planet,  will  form  pretty 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CELESTIAL  DISTANCES.  305 

large  angles,  and  be  easily  perceptible;  and  so  likewise  will  be 
the  parallaxes  of  the  sun  and  the  other  planets  which  are  visible 
from  that  globe.  3.  The  chief  difficulty  in  finding  the  distances 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  to  determine  accurately  the  'precise 
quantity  of  their  parallaxes . In  the  case  of  the  moon  there  is 
no  difficulty,  as  her  horizontal  parallax  amounts  to  nearly  one 
degree,  and  can  be  taken  with  the  greatest  nicety;  but  the  sun’s 
parallax  is  so  small  that  it  was  some  time  before  it  was  accurately 
determined.  It  was  for  this  purpose,  among  others,  that  Captain 
Cook’s  first  expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  undertaken,  in 
order  that  the  astronomers  connected  with  it  might  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus  at  the  island  of  Tahiti;  since  which  time,  the 
sun’s  distance  has  been  ascertained  within  the  part  of  his  true 
distance;  which  likewise  determines  very  nearly  the  true  propor- 
tional distances  and  magnitudes  of  all  the  planets.  This  circum- 
stance accounts  for  the  fact,  that  in  books  on  astronomy,  pub- 
lished about  a century  ago,  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the 
sun  and  planets  are  estimated  somewhat  lower  than  they  are  now 
found  to  be;  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the 
construction  of  astronomical  instruments  having  enabled  modern 
observers  to  measure  parallactic  angles  with  greater  niceness  and 
accuracy.  4.  When  the  parallax  of  any  heavenly  body  is  once 
accurately  found,  and  its  apparent  diameter  measured,  its  real 
distance  and  bulk  can  be  as  certainly  known  as  the  price  of  any 
quantity  of  merchandise  which  is  calculated  by  the  rule  of  pro- 
portion. 5.  From  what  has  been  stated  above,  we  may  learn  the 
importance  of  knowing  all  the  properties  of  a triangle,  and  the 
art  of  measuring  angles.  At  first  sight,  it  may  appear  to  be  a 
matter  of  trivial  importance  to  know  that  the  radius  of  a circle 
bears  a certain  known  proportion  to  the  sine,  or  tangent,  of  a 
certain  angle ; that  the  sides  of  any  triangle  are  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles;  and  that  the  three 
angles  of  every  plane  triangle  are  exactly  equal  to  two  right 
angles.  Yet  such  truths  form  the  foundation  of  all  the  discoveries 
which  have  been  made  respecting  the  magnitudes  and  distances 
of  the  great  bodies  of  the  universe,  and  of  the  ample  conceptions 
we  are  now  enabled  to  form  of  the  vast  extent  of  creation,  and 
of  the  attributes  of  its  adorable  Creator. 

Those  persons  who  feel  themselves  unable  to  comprehend 
clearly  the  principles  and  calculations  above  stated,  may  rest 
satisfied  with  the  general  deductions  of  astronomers  respecting 
the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  sun  and  planets,  from  the 

x 


306  ACCURACY  IN  CALCULATING  ECLIPSES. 

following  considerations: — 1.  The  general  agreement  of  all 
modern  astronomers  as  to  these  deductions . However  much 
astronomers  may  differ  in  regard  to  certain  subordinate  opinions, 
or  conjectures,  respecting  certain  phenomena,  they  all  agree  with 
respect  to  the  bulks  and  distances  of  the  planetary  orbs,  and 
the  mode  by  which  they  are  ascertained.  If  there  were  any 
fallacy  in  their  calculations,  such  is  the  tendency  of  human  nature 
to  find  fault,  it  would  soon  be  pointed  out.  2.  The  consideration 
of  the  accuracy  with  which  astronomers  predict  certain  celestial 
phenomena  should  induce  persons  unskilled  in  this  science  to 
rely  on  the  conclusions  deduced  by  astronomers.  They  are  fully 
aware,  that  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  calculated  and 
predicted  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  The  very  moment  of  their 
beginning,  middle,  and  end,  and  the  places  where  they  will  be 
visible,  are  foretold  to  a nicety — the  nature  and  magnitude  of 
the  eclipse,  and  all  the  circumstances  connected  with  it,  deter- 
mined; and  that,  too,  for  more  than  a century  to  come.  All  the 
eclipses  which  have  happened  of  late  years  were  calculated  more 
than  half  a century  ago,  and  are  to  be  found  recorded  in  the 
writings  of  astronomers.  They  can  likewise  tell  when  Mars, 
Jupiter,  or  Saturn,  is  to  suffer  an  occultation  by  the  moon,  the 
time  when  it  will  begin  and  end,  the  particular  part  of  the  moon’s 
limb  behind  which  the  planet  will  disappear,  the  point  on  the 
opposite  limb  where  it  will  again  emerge,  and  the  places  of  the 
earth  where  the  occultation  will  be  visible.  They  can  likewise 
predict  the  precise  moment  when  any  of  the  fixed  stars — even 
those  invisible  to  the  naked  eye — shall  suffer  an  occultation  by 
the  moon,  or  by  any  of  the  planets;  and  such  occultations  of  the 
stars  and  planets  are  stated  in  the  “ Nautical  Almanack,”  and 
similar  publications,  three  or  four  years  before  they  actually 
happen. 

The  precise  time,  likewise,  when  the  planets  Mercury  and 
Yenus  will  appear  to  pass  across  the  sun’s  disk,  has  been  pre- 
dicted for  a century  before  such  events  happened,  and  such 
transits  have  been  calculated  for  several  centuries  to  come,  and 
will  most  assuredly  take  place,  as  they  have  hitherto  done,  if  the 
laws  of  nature  continue  to  operate  as  in  ages  past.  Dr.  Halley, 
in  1691,  predicted  the  transit  of  Yenus  that  happened  in  1761, 
seventy  years  before  it  took  place;  and  not  only  so,  but  he  cal- 
culated the  precise  hour  in  which  the  planet  would  appear  to 
touch  the  limb  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  different  places — the  par- 
ticular part  of  the  sun’s  margin  where  the  planet  would  appear 


ACCURACY  IN  CALCULATING  TRANSITS.  307 

and  disappear,  and  the  precise  course  it  would  take  in  passing 
across  the  disk  of  the  sun — the  appearance  it  would  present  in 
different  regions  of  the  globe,  and  the  most  proper  places  in  both 
hemispheres  were  pointed  out  where  either  its  beginning,  middle, 
or  end,  would  be  most  distinctly  observed,  in  order  to  accomplish 
the  object  in  view — namely,  the  determination  of  the  exact  dis- 
tance of  the  sun.  All  which  calculations  and  predictions  were 
ultimately  found  to  be  correct;  and  astronomers  were  sent  to 
different  parts  of  the  globe  to  observe  this  interesting  pheno- 
menon, which  happens  only  once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  a 
century.  The  same  astronomer  calculated  the  period  of  a comet, 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  “ Halley’s  Comet,”  and  predicted 
the  periods  when  it  would  return.  It  was  seen  in  England  in 
1682,  and  Dr.  Halley  calculated  that  it  would  again  appear,  in 
this  part  of  the  system,  in  1758;  and  it  accordingly  made  its 
appearance  in  December,  1758,  and  arrived  at  its  perihelion  on 
the  13th  of  March,  1759.  The  validity  of  these  calculations  and 
predictions  has  been  again  verified  by  the  reappearance  of  the 
same  comet  in  1835,  just  at  the  time  when  it  was  expected,  which 
proves  that  it  completes  its  course  in  the  period  which  had  been 
predicted — namely,  seventy-six  years,  and  will,  doubtless,  again 
revisit  this  part  of  the  system  in  the  year  1911  or  1912.  Astro- 
nomers can  likewise  point  out,  even  in  the  day-time,  the  different 
stars  and  planets  which  are  above  the  horizon,  though  invisible 
to  the  unassisted  eye.  I have  sometimes  surprised  even  gentle- 
men of  intelligence,  by  showing  them,  through  an  equatorial 
telescope,  the  star  Arcturus,  and  in  a minute  or  two  afterwards 
the  star  Altair,  in  another  part  of!  the  heavens,  and  the  planet 
Venus,  in  another  quarter,  in  the  form  of  a brilliant  crescent  ; 
while  the  sun  was  several  hours  above  the  horizon,  and  shining 
in  its  greatest  brightness,  and  while  these  bodies  are  every 
moment  shifting  their  apparent  positions.  All  which  is  quite 
easy  to  be  accomplished  by  every  one  who  understands  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  the  first  principles  of 
astronomy. 

Now,  as  the  above  facts  are  indisputable — and  every  one  who 
feels  an  interest  in  the  subject  may  satisfy  himself  as  to  their 
reality — it  is  evident  to  a demonstration,  that  the  principles  of 
science  on  which  such  calculations  and  predictions  proceed,  are 
not  mere  conjecture  or  precarious  supposition,  but  have  a real 
foundation  in  the  constitution  of  nature,  and  in  the  fundamental 
laws  which  govern  the  universe.  And  as  the  knowledge  of 

x 2 


308  CERTAINTY  OF  THE  DEDUCTIONS  OF  ASTRONOMERS. 


astronomers  cannot  be  questioned  in  relation  to  the  phenomena 
to  which  I refer,  it  would  be  unreasonable,  and  injurious  to  the 
moral  characters  of  such  men,  to  call  in  question  their  modes  of 
ascertaining  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  the  planetary  bodies, 
and  the  deductions  they  have  made  in  relation  to  their  astonish- 
ing magnitudes.  There  is  no  science  whose  principles  are  more 
certain  and  demonstrable  than  those  of  astronomy.  No  labour 
nor  expense  has  been  spared  to  extend  its  observations,  and  to 
render  them  accurate  in  the  extreme;  and  the  noblest  efforts  of 
genius  have  been  called  forth  to  establish  its  truths  on  a basis 
immutable  as  the  laws  of  the  universe;  and  therefore  the  man 
who  questions  the  leading  facts  and  deductions  of  this  science 
only  proclaims  his  own  imbecility  and  ignorance. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON  THE  SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  AS  VIEWED  FROM  THE 
SURFACES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  PLANETS  AND  THEIR 
SATELLITES. 

This  is  a department  of  descriptive  astronomy  which  is  seldom 
noticed  in  books  professedly  written  to  illustrate  the  objects  of 
this  science.  It  is  here  introduced,  not  only  as  an  interesting 
subject  of  contemplation,  but  as  an  illustration  of  the  variety 
which  the  Creator  has  introduced  into  the  scenes  of  the  universe, 
and  as  a collateral  or  presumptive  argument  in  support  of  the 
doctrine  of  a plurality  of  worlds. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  particular  descriptions  I intend  to 
give,  it  may  be  proper  to  state  the  following  General  Remarks : 

1.  The  different  clusters  of  stars,  or  the  constellations , will  appear 
exactly  the  same,  when  viewed  from  the  other  planets,  as  to  the 
inhabitants  of  our  globe.  For  example,  the  constellations  of 
Orion  and  of  the  Great  Bear  will  appear  of  the  same  shape  or 
figure,  and  all  the  stars  of  which  they  are  composed  will  appear 
to  have  the  same  arrangement  and  the  same  relative  distances 
from  each  other,  and  from  neighbouring  stars,  as  they  do  to  us. 

2.  The  apparent  magnitudes  of  the  fixed  stars  will  appear 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  CELESTIAL  SCENERY.  309 

exactly  the  same  as  they  do  when  viewed  from  our  world;  that 
is,  they  will  appear  no  larger  than  shining  points  of  different 
magnitudes,  even  when  viewed  from  the  most  distant  planets. 
The  reason  of  this,  and  of  the  preceding  position,  is  obvious, 
from  the  consideration  of  the  immense  distance  of  those  bodies. 
For,  although  we  are  190  millions  of  miles  nearer  some  of  the 
fixed  stars  at  one  time  of  the  year  than  at  another,  yet  there 
appears  no  sensible  difference  in  their  size  or  arrangement,  and 
although  we  were  placed  on  the  remotest  planet  of  the  system, 
we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  material  difference  in  this 
respect  would  be  perceived.  For  the  distances  of  the  remoter 
planets  bear  no  sensible  proportion  to  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars.  Even  the  distance  of  the  planet  Uranus,  great  as  it  is, 
which  would  require  four  hundred  years  for  a cannon  ball  to 
move  over  the  space  which  intervenes  between  that  orb  and  us, 
is  less  than  the  ten  thousandth  part  of  the  distance  of  the  nearest 
star;  and  therefore  can  produce  no  sensible  difference  in  the 
general  aspect  of  the  starry  firmament.  3.  Though  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  stars  and  constellations  will  appear  the  same 
as  to  us,  yet  the  different  directions  of  the  axes  of  some  of  the 
planets  from  that  of  the  earth  will  cause  a different  appearance 
in  tlieir  apparent  diurnal  revolutions.  Some  stars  which  appear 
in  our  equator  may,  in  other  planets,  appear  near  one  of  their 
poles,  and  our  pole  star  may  appear  near  their  equator. 

In  the  following  descriptions,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the 
general  laws  of  vision  are  materially  the  same  in  all  the  planetary 
bodies  as  in  that  part  of  the  system  which  we  occupy.  Of  this 
we  have  no  reason  to  doubt,  as  the  same  light  which  illuminates 
the  earth  likewise  enlightens  all  the  planets  and  their  satellites. 
It  originates  from  the  same  source — it  is  refracted  and  reflected 
by  the  same  laws,  and  must  produce  colours  similar  or  analogous 
to  those  which  diversify  the  surface  of  our  globe;  though,  perhaps, 
susceptible  of  numerous  modifications  in  other  regions,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  atmospheres  through  which  it  passes,  and 
the  quality  of  the  objects  on  which  it  falls.  The  descriptions 
that  follow  likewise  proceed  on  the  supposition  that  the  extent  of 
vision  is  the  same  as  ours.  This,  in  all  probability,  is  not  the 
case.  It  is  more  probable  that,  in  certain  worlds,  the  organs  of 
vision  of  their  inhabitants  may  be  far  more  exquisite  than  ours, 
and  capable  of  surveying  with  distinctness  a much  more  exten- 
sive range  of  view.  But  as  we  are  ignorant  of  such  particulars, 
we  can  only  proceed  on  the  assumption  of  what  would  appear  to 


310 


SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS 


eyes  constituted  like  ours,  were  we  placed  on  the  surfaces  of  the 
different  planets. 

Scenery  of  the  Heavens  from  the  Planet  Mercury . — This 
planet  being  so  near  the  sun  has  prevented  us  from  discovering 
various  particulars  which  have  been  ascertained  in  relation  to 
several  of  the  other  planets;  and  therefore  little  can  be  said 
respecting  its  celestial  scenery.  The  starry  heavens  will  appear 
to  move  around  it,  every  twenty-four  hours,  as  they  do  to  us,  if 
the  observations  of  M.  Schroeter,  formerly  stated,  (p.  54,)  be 
correct;  but  the  direction  of  its  axis  of  rotation  is  not  known, 
and  therefore  we  cannot  tell  what  stars  will  appear  near  its 
equator  or  its  poles.  The  sun  will  present  a surface  in  the 
heavens  seven  times  as  large  as  he  does  to  us,  and,  of  course,  will 
exhibit  a very  august  and  brilliant  appearance  in  the  sky;  and 
will  produce  a corresponding  brightness  and  vividness  of  colour 
on  the  objects  which  are  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the 
planet.  Both  Venus  and  the  earth  will  appear  as  superior 
planets;  and  when  Venus  is  near  its  opposition  to  the  sun,  at 
which  time  it  will  rise  when  the  sun  sets,  it  will  present  a very 
brilliant  appearance  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mercury,  and  serve  the 
purpose  of  a small  moon,  to  illuminate  the  evenings  in  the 
absence  of  the  sun.  As  Venus  presents  a full  enlightened  hernia- 
sphere,  at  this  period,  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mercury,  it  will  ex- 
hibit a surface  six  or  seven  times  larger  than  it  does  to  us,  when 
it  shines  with  its  greatest  brilliancy,  and  therefore  will  appear 
a very  bright  and  conspicuous  object  in  the  firmament  of  this 
planet.  At  all  other  times,  it  will  appear  at  least  two  or  three 
times  larger  than  it  ever  does  as  seen  from  the  earth.  It  will 
generally  appear  round;  but  at  certain  times  it  will  exhibit  a 
gibbous  phase,  as  the  planet  Mars  frequently  does  to  us.  It  will 
never  appear  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mercury  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  or  a half  moon,  as  it  sometimes  does  through  our  tele- 
scopes. There  is  no  celestial  body  within  the  range  of  this  planet 
with  which  we  are  acquainted  which  will  exhibit  either  a half 
moon  or  a crescent  phase,  unless  it  be  accompanied  by  a satel- 
lite. The  earth  is  another  object  in  the  firmament  of  Mercury 
which  will  appear  next  in  splendour  to  Venus.  The  earth  and 
Venus  are  nearly  of  an  equal  size, — Venus  being  only  130  miles 
less  in  diameter  than  the  earth;  but  the  earth  being  nearly  double 
the  distance  of  Venus  from  Mercury,  its  apparent  diameter,  at 
the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun,  will  be  only  about  half  that 
of  Venus.  The  earth,  however,  at  this  period,  will  appear  in 


FROM  THE  PLANET  MERCURY. 


311 


the  sky  of  Mercury  of  a size  and  splendour  three  or  four  times 
greater  than  Venus  does  to  us,  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  bril- 
liancy. Our  moon  will  also  be  seen  like  a star  accompanying 
the  earth,  sometimes  approaching  to,  or  receding  further  from, 
the  earth,  and  sometimes  hid  from  the  view  by  passing  across 
the  disk  of  the  earth,  or  through  its  shadow.  It  will  probably 
appear  about  the  size  and  brightness  of  Mars  or  Saturn,  as  seen 
in  our  sky.  The  earth,  with  its  satellite,  and  Venus,  will  be 
seen  near  the  same  point  of  the  heavens  at  the  end  of  every 
thirteen  months,  when  they  will  for  some  time  appear  the  most 
conspicuous  objects  in  the  heavens,  and  will  diffuse  a considerable 
portion  of  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun.  At  other  periods,  the 
one  will  rise  in  the  eastern  horizon  as  the  other  sets  in  the 
western;  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  Mercury  will  seldom  be 
without  a conspicuous  object  in  their  heavens,  diffusing  a lustre 
far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  stars  or  planets.  The  earth  will 
be  in  opposition  to  the  sun  every  four  months,  and  Venus  after 
a period  of  five  months.  The  planets,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn, 
will  appear  nearly  as  they  do  to  us,  but  with  a somewhat  inferior 
degree  of  magnitude  and  brilliancy,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
Mars.  The  period  of  the  annual  revolution  of  Mercury  being 
eighty-eight  days,  the  sun  will  appear  to  move  from  west  to  east 
through  the  circle  of  the  heavens  at  a rate  more  than  four  times 
greater  than  his  apparent  motion  through  the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

Appearance  of  the  Heavens  as  viewed  f rom  Venus . — To  the  in- 
habitants of  this  planet  the  heavens  will  present  an  aspect  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  Mercury,  with  a few  variations.  Mercury  will 
be  to  Venus  an  inferior  planet,  which  will  never  appear  beyond 
thirty-eight  or  forty  degrees  of  the  sun.  It  will  appear  in  the 
evening  after  sunset,  for  the  space  of  two  or  three  hours,  when 
near  its  greatest  elongation,  and  in  the  morning  before  sunrise, 
when  in  the  opposite  part  of  its  course,  and  will  alternately  be 
a morning  and  an  evening  star  to  Venus,  as  that  planet  is  to  us, 
but  with  a less  degree  of  splendour.  The  most  splendid  object 
in  the  nocturnal  sky  of  Venus  will  be  the  earth , when  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  sun,  when  it  will  appear  with  a magnitude  and 
splendour  five  or  six  times  greater  than  either  Jupiter  or  Venus 
appears  to  us  at  the  time  of  their  greatest  brilliancy.  It  will 
serve,  in  a great  measure,  the  purpose  of  a moon  to  Venus,  if 
this  planet  have  no  satellite,  and  will  cause  the  several  objects 
on  its  surface  to  project  distinct  and  well-defined  shadows,  as 
our  moon  does  when  she  appears  a crescent.  Our  moon,  in  its 


312 


SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS  FROM  VENUS. 


revolutions  round  the  earth,  will  likewise  appear  a prominent 
object  in  the  heavens,  and  will  probably  appear  about  the  size 
that  Jupiter  appears  to  us.  Her  occultations,  eclipses,  and  transits 
across  the  earth’s  disk  will  be  distinctly  visible.  With  telescopes 
such  as  the  best  of  ours,  the  earth  would  appear,  from  Venus,  a 
much  larger  and  more  variegated  object  than  any  of  the  planets 
do  to  us,  when  viewed  with  high  magnifying  powers.  The  forms 
of  our  different  continents,  seas,  and  islands — the  different  strata 
of  clouds  in  our  atmosphere,  with  their  several  changes  and 
motions,  and  the  earth’s  diurnal  rotation,  would,  in  all  probability, 
be  distinctly  perceived.  Even  the  varieties  which  distinguish 
the  surface  of  our  moon  would  be  visible  with  telescopes  of  high 
magnifying  power.  The  circumstances  now  stated  prove  the 
connexion  of  the  different  parts  of  the  planetary  system  with 
one  another,  and  that  the  Creator  has  so  arranged  this  system 
as  to  render  one  wrorld,  in  a certain  degree,  subservient  to  the 
benefit  of  another.  The  earth  serves  as  a large  and  splendid 
moon  to  the  lunar  inhabitants;  it  serves,  in  a certain  degree,  the 
purpose  of  a small  moon  to  Mercury;  it  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
larger  moon,  by  exhibiting  a surface  and  a radiance  four  times 
greater,  to  the  inhabitants  of  Venus;  and  it  serves  as  a morning 
and  evening  star  to  the  planet  Mars.  So  that,  while  we  feel 
enjoyment  in  contemplating  the  moon  walking  in  brightness,  and 
hail  with  pleasure  the  morning  star  as  the  harbinger  of  day,  and 
feel  a delight  in  surveying  those  nocturnal  orbs  through  our 
telescopes,  the  globe  on  which  we  dwell  affords  similar  enjoy- 
ments to  the  intellectual  beings  in  neighbouring  worlds,  who 
behold  our  habitation  from  afar,  as  a bright  speck  upon  their 
firmament,  diffusing  amidst  the  shades  of  night  a mild  degree  of 
radiance.  From  Venus,  the  planets  Saturn  and  Jupiter  will 
appear  nearly  as  they  do  to  us;  but  the  planet  Mars  will  appear 
considerably  smaller.  The  sun,  in  this  planet,  will  present  a 
surface  twfice  as  large  as  he  does  in  our  sky,  and  will  appear  to 
make  a revolution  round  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  seven 
months  and  a half,  which  completes  the  year  of  Venus. 

The  Heavens  as  viewed  from  Mars . — From  this  planet  the 
earth  will,  at  certain  periods,  be  distinctly  seen,  but  it  will 
present  a different  aspect,  both  in  its  general  appearance  and  its 
apparent  motions,  from  what  it  does  to  the  inhabitants  of  Venus. 
To  Mars,  the  earth  is  an  inferior  planet,  whose  orbit  is  within 
the  orbit  of  Mars.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  only  as  a morning 
and  evening  star,  as  Venus  appears  to  us;  but  with  a less  degree 
of  magnitude  and  brightness;  since  Mars  is  at  a greater  distance 


THE  HEAVENS  AS  VIEWED  FROM  MARS. 


313 


from  the  earth  than  the  earth  is  from  Venus.  It  will  present  to 
Mars,  successively,  the  form  of  a crescent , a half  moon , and  a 
gibbous  phase,  but  will  seldom  or  never  be  seen  as  a full  en- 
lightened hemisphere,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  sun 
when  its  enlightened  surface  is  fully  turned  towards  the  planet; 
nor  will  it  ever  appear  further  removed  from  the  sun,  either  in 
the  mornings  or  evenings,  than  forty-eight  degrees,  so  that  the 
earth  will  never  appear  in  the  firmament  of  Mars  about  mid- 
night. The  earth  will,  likewise,  be  sometimes  seen  to  pass  across 
the  sun’s  disk,  like  a round  black  spot,  as  Venus  and  Mercury, 
at  certain  periods,  appear  to  us;  but  the  planet  Mercury  will 
never  be  seen  from  Mars,  on  account  of  its  smallness,  and  its 
nearness  to  the  sun;  for  at  its  greatest  elongation  it  will  be  only 
a few  degrees  from  the  sun’s  margin,  and  will  consequently  be 
immersed  in  his  rays.  The  only  time  in  which  it  might  happen 
to  be  detected  will  be  when  it  makes  a transit  across  the  solar 
disk.  Venus  will  be  as  seldom  seen  by  the  inhabitants  of  Mars 
as  Mercury  is  to  us.  Our  moon  will  likewise  be  seen  from 
Mars,  like  a small  star  accompanying  the  earth,  sometimes 
appearing  to  the  east,  and  sometimes  to  the  west  of  the  earth, 
but  never  at  a greater  distance  from  each  other  than  fifteen 
minutes  of  a degree,  or  about  half  the  apparent  breadth  of  the 
moon;  and  with  telescopes  such  as  ours  all  its  phases  and 
eclipses  might  be  distinctly  perceived.  The  planets  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  will  appear  to  Mars  nearly  as  they  do  to  us.  At  the 
time  of  Jupiter’s  opposition  to  the  sun,  that  planet  will  appear  a 
slight  degree  larger,  as  Mars  is  then  fifty  millions  of  miles  nearer 
it  than  we  are;  but  Saturn  will  not  appear  sensibly  larger 
than  to  us;  and  it  is  likely  that  the  planets  Uranus,  Vesta,  Juno, 
Ceres,  and  Pallas,  will  not  be  more  distinguishable  than  they 
are  from  our  globe.  The  point  Aries , on  the  ecliptic  of  Mars — 
or  one  of  the  points  where  its  ecliptic  and  equator  intersect  each 
other — corresponds  to  19°  28'  of  our  sign  Sagittarius . In  con- 
sequence of  this,  the  poles  of  Mars  will  be  directed  to  points  of 
the  heavens  considerably  different  from  our  polar  points,  and  its 
equator  will  pass  through  a different  series  of  stars  from  that 
which  marks  our  equator,  which  will  cause  the  different  stars 
and  constellations,  in  their  apparent  diurnal  revolution,  to  present 
a different  aspect  from  what  they  do  in  their  apparent  movements 
round  our  globe. 

The  Heavens  as  viewed  from  Vesta , Juno , Ceres , and  Pallas . 
— These  planets,  being  so  very  nearly  at  the  same  mean  distance 
from  the  sun,  the  appearance  of  the  heavens  will  be  nearly  the 


314  CELESTIAL  SCENERY  FROM  THE  NEW  PLANETS. 


same  to  the  inhabitants  (if  any)  of  each  of  these  bodies.  The 
planet  Jupiter  will  be  the  most  conspicuous  object  in  the  noc- 
turnal sky  of  all  these  planets,  and  will  appear  with  nearly  three 
times  the  size  and  splendour  that  he  does  when  seen  from  the 
earth,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  a small  brilliant  moon. 
Saturn  will  appear  somewhat  larger  and  brighter  than  to  us,  but 
the  difference  in  his  appearance  will  be  inconsiderable;  nor  will 
Uranus  be  more  distinctly  visible  than  from  the  earth.  At  other 
times,  when  near  their  conjunctions  with  the  sun,  these  planets 
will  appear  smaller  than  to  us.  Mars  will  sometimes  appear  as 
a morning  and  evening  star,  but  he  will  always  be  in  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  of  the  sun,  and  will  present  a surface  much 
less  in  apparent  size  than  he  does  to  the  earth.  The  earth  will 
seldom  be  seen,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  sun;  and 
Venus  and  Mercury  will  be  altogether  invisible,  unless  when 
they  transit  the  solar  disk.  It  is  likely  that,  at  certain  times, 
the  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  will  exhibit  an  un- 
common, and  occasionally  a brilliant,  appearance  in  the  firma- 
ment of  each  other.  As  their  distances  from  the  sun  are  so 
nearly  the  same,  they  may  occasionally  approach  each  other  so 
as  to  be  ten  times  nearer  each  other  in  one  part  of  their  course 
than  at  another.  It  is  even  possible  that  they  might  approach 
within  a few  miles  of  each  other,  or  even  come  into  collision. 
These  different  positions  in  which  they  may  be  placed  in  relation 
to  one  another  will,  doubtless,  produce  a great  variety  in  the 
appearances  they  present  in  their  respective  firmaments;  so  that 
one  time  they  may  present  in  the  visible  firmament  a surface  a 
hundred,  or  even  two  hundred,  times  greater  than  they  do  in 
other  parts  of  their  annual  revolutions.  It  is  probable,  there- 
fore, that  the  diversified  aspects  of  these  planets,  in  respect  to 
each  other,  will  form  the  most  striking  phenomena  which 
diversify  their  nocturnal  heavens.  In  consequence  of  the  great 
eccentricity  of  the  orbit  of  Pallas,  the  sun  will  appear  much 
larger  to  this  planet  in  one  part  of  its  revolution  than  it  does  at 
another. 

Celestial  Scenery  in  Jupiter . — The  only  planet  whose  appear- 
ance will  be  conspicuous  in  the  firmament  of  Jupiter  is  the  planet 
Saturn , which  will  appear  with  a surface  four  times  greater  than 
is  exhibited  in  our  sky,  and  will  appear  larger  than  either  Jupiter 
or  Venus  does  to  us,  particularly  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to 
the  sun.  At  certain  other  periods,  when  near  the  time  of  its 
conjunction  with  the  sun,  it  will  appear  considerably  smaller 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY  FROM  JUPITER. 


315 


than  when  viewed  from  the  earth;  as,  at  such  periods,  Saturn  is 
nearly  fourteen  hundred  millions  of  miles  distant  from  Jupiter, 
while  it  is  never  beyond  ten  hundred  millions  from  the  earth, 
even  at  its  remotest  distance.  The  planet  Uranus,  which  is 
scarcely  visible  to  our  unassisted  sight,  will  not  be  much  more 
distinguishable  at  Jupiter  than  with  us,  even  at  the  period  of  its 
opposition,  although  Jupiter  is  at  that  time  400  millions  of  miles 
nearer  it  than  a spectator  on  the  earth.  At  other  times,  when 
near  its  conjunction  with  the  sun,  it  will  be  2300  millions  of 
miles  from  Jupiter,  which  is  400  millions  of  miles  more  distant 
than  it  ever  is  from  us.  Mars  will  scarcely  be  seen  from  J upiter, 
both  on  account  of  his  smallness  and  his  proximity  to  the  sun; 
for  at  his  greatest  elongation,  he  can  never  be  more  than  eighteen 
degrees  from  that  luminary.  The  earth,  too,  will  be  invisible 
from  Jupiter,  both  on  account  of  its  small  size,  its  distance,  and 
its  being  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sun,  and  immersed  in 
its  rays;  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  planet  will  scarcely  sus- 
pect that  such  a globe  as  that  on  which  we  dwell  exists  in  the 
universe.  It  is  a humiliating  consideration  to  reflect,  that  before 
we  have  passed  over  one-fourth  part  of  the  extent  of  our  system, 
this  earth,  with  all  its  kingdoms  and  fancied  grandeur,  of  which 
mortals  are  so  proud,  vanishes  from  the  sight,  as  if  it  were  a 
mere  atom  in  creation,  and  is  altogether  unnoticed  and  unknown. 
It  is  calculated  to  convey  a lesson  of  humility  and  of  humanity 
to  those  proucf  and  ambitious  mortals  who  glory  in  their  riches, 
and  in  the  small  patches  of  earthly  territory  they  have  acquired, 
at  the  expense  of  the  blood  of  thousands  of  their  fellow-men,  and 
who  fancy  themselves  to  be  a species  of  demi-gods,  because  they 
have  assisted  in  the  conquest  of  nations,  and  in  spreading  ruin 
and  devastation  over  the  earth.  Let  us  wing  our  flight  to  Jupiter 
or  Saturn  which  appears  so  conspicuous  in  our  nocturnal  sky, 
and  before  we  have  arrived  at  the  middle  point  of  the  planetary 
system,  this  globe,  on  which  we  tread,  with  all  the  proud  mortals 
that  dwell  upon  its  surface,  vanishes  from  the  sight,  as  a par- 
ticle of  water,  with  its  microscopic  animalculae,  dropped  into  the 
ocean,  disappears  for  ever.  In  those  regions,  more  expansive 
and  magnificent  scenes  open  to  view,  and  their  inhabitants — if 
ever  they  have  heard  of  such  beings  as  fallen  man— look  down 
with  an  eye  of  pity  and  commiseration,  and  view  their  characters 
and  conduct  with  a holy  indignation  and  contempt. 

Venus  and  Mercury  will,  of  course,  be  altogether  invisible 
from  the  surface  of  Jupiter,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  even 


316 


THE  HEAVENS  AS  VIEWED  FROM  SATURN. 


the  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  will  be  perceived. 
But  although  so  few  of  the  primary  planets  are  seen  in  the 
nocturnal  sky  of  this  planet,  its  firmament  will  present  a most 
splendid  and  variegated  aspect,  by  the  diversified  phases,  eclipses, 
and  movements  of  the  satellites  with  which  it  is  encircled;  so 
that  its  inhabitants  will  be  more  charmed  and  interested  by  the 
phenomena  presented  by  their  own  moons  than  by  their  con- 
templation of  the  other  bodies  of  the  system.  But  as  I have 
already  described  the  appearances  of  these  moons,  as  seen  from 
Jupiter,  (p.  262,  chap,  iv.,  sec.  2,)  it  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge. 

Scenery  of  the  Heavens  as  viewed  from  Saturn . — The  firma- 
ment of  Saturn  will,  unquestionably,  present  to  view  a more 
magnificent  and  diversified  scene  of  celestial  phenomena  than 
that  of  any  other  planet  of  our  system.  It  is  placed  nearly  in 
the  middle  of  that  space  which  intervenes  between  the  sun  and 
the  orbit  of  the  remotest  planet.  Including  its  rings  and  satel- 
lites, it  may  be  considered  as  the  largest  body,  or  system  of 
bodies,  within  the  limits  of  the  solar  system;  and  it  excels  them 
all  in  the  sublime  and  diversified  apparatus  with  which  it  is  ac- 
companied. In  these  respects,  Saturn  may  justly  be  considered 
as  the  sovereign  among  the  planetary  hosts.  The  prominent 
part  of  its  celestial  scenery  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
its  own  system  of  rings  and  satellites,  and  the  views  which  will 
occasionally  be  opened  of  the  firmament  of  the  fixed  stars;  for 
few  of  the  other  planets  will  make  their  appearance  in  its  sky. 
Jupiter  will  appear  alternately  as  a morning  and  evening  star, 
with  about  the  same  degree  of  brilliancy  it  exhibits  to  us;  but  it 
will  seldom  be  conspicuous  except  near  the  period  of  its  greatest 
elongation,  and  it  will  never  appear  to  remove  from  the  sun 
further  than  thirty-seven  degrees,  and  consequently  will  not 
appear  so  conspicuous,  nor  for  such  a length  of  time,  as  Venus 
does  to  us.  Uranus  is  the  only  other  planet  which  will  be  seen 
from  Saturn,  and  it  will  there  be  distinctly  perceptible,  like  a 
star  of  the  third  magnitude,  when  near  the  time  of  its  opposition 
to  the  sun.  But  near  the  time  of  its  conjunction  it  will  be  com- 
pletely invisible,  being  then  eighteen  hundred  millions  of  miles 
further  distant  than  at  the  opposition,  and  eight  hundred  millions 
of  miles  further  distant  from  Saturn  than  it  ever  is  from  the 
earth  at  any  period.  All  the  other  eight  planets,  together  with 
our  moon,  will  be  far  beyond  the  reach  of  a spectator  in  Saturn, 
unless  he  be  furnished  with  organs  of  vision  far  superior  to  ours 
in  their  “ space  penetrating  power.”  It  is  not  improbable  that 


KINGS  OF  SATUKN. 


317 


more  comets  will  be  seen  in  their  course  from  the  sun,  from  the 
distant  regions  in  which  Saturn  moves,  than  from  that  part  of 
the  system  in  which  we  are  placed.  Some  of  these  bodies,  when 
they  pass  beyond  the  limits  of  our  view,  will  be  visible  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Saturn ; and  as  their  motions  in  those  distant  spaces 
are  much  slower  than  when  near  the  sun,  they  will  remain 
visible  for  a longer  time,  when  they  happen  to  make  their 
appearance,  than  they  do  when  passing  through  our  part  of 
the  system. 

Having  already  given  a pretty  full  description  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  rings  of  this  planet  as  viewed  from  its  surface, 
(p.  177 — 184,)  and  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  its  satellites, 
(p.  265,)  it  is  unnecessary  to  introduce  the  subject  in  this  place. 
I shall  only  remark  further,  in  regard  to  the  rings  which  en- 
compass this  planet,  that,  besides  the  light  they  reflect  on  the 
planet,  and  the  brilliant  aspect  they  present  in  its  firmament, 
they  cast  a great  diversity  of  shadows  upon  the  surface  of  the 
planet,  of  different  breadths  at  different  times  and  places,  and  it 
will  require  a considerable  degree  of  attention  and  investigation 
on  the  part  of  its  inhabitants  to  determine  whence  the  shadows 
proceed.  For  when  the  dark  sides  of  the  rings  are  turned  towards 
them,  they  will,  in  all  probability,  be  invisible  in  their  sky,  as  the 
dark  side  of  the  moon  or  of  Venus  is  to  us;  and,  therefore,  they 
may  be  at  a loss,  in  some  instances,  to  discover  the  causes  of 
such  varieties  of  light  and  shade.  For,  although  we  are  placed  in 
a convenient  position  to  perceive  that  they  are  in  reality  complete 
rings  which  environ  the  body  of  Saturn,  yet  it  will  not  be  so  easy 
for  its  inhabitants  to  discover  this  fact;  as  only  a portion  of  the 
rings  will  be  visible  in  some  places,  and  in  the  regions  near  the 
poles,  they  will  appear  only  like  a bright  streak  in  the  horizon. 
They  will  naturally  conclude,  that  the  shadows  proceed  from 
some  body  in  their  firmament;  but  they  will  require  to  make  a 
great  variety  of  observations,  to  compare  them  together,  and  to 
investigate  the  doctrine  of  parallaxes,  before  they  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  phenomena  alluded  to  are  caused  by  mighty 
rings  which  encompass  their  habitation. 

As  the  diameter  of  Saturn  is  ten  times  the  diameter  of  the 
earth,  it  will  be  comparatively  easy  for  its  inhabitants  to  find  the 
parallaxes,  distances,  and  magnitudes  of  its  different  satellites, 
and  likewise  of  Jupiter  and  Uranus,  which  are  the  only  planets 
visible  from  Saturn.  To  those  who  dwell  in  its  equatorial 
regions,  the  motion  of  the  rings  around  their  axes  will  furnish 


318 


SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS  AT  URANUS. 


an  accurate  measure  of  time,  as  well  as  the  diurnal  rotation  of 
the  planet;  and  to  all  places  on  its  surface  the  periodical  revolu- 
tions of  its  different  satellites  will  afford  various  measures,  divi- 
sions, and  subdivisions  of  the  lapse  of  duration.  The  sun  will 
appear,  from  this  planet,  of  a size  about  five  times  the  diameter 
which  Jupiter  presents  to  our  view,  or  about  ^ or  part  of  the 
diameter  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth;  but,  notwithstanding, 
there  appears  no  deficiency  of  light  on  the  surface  of  Saturn. 

Let  us,  then,  suppose  two  mighty  arches  in  Saturn’s  nocturnal 
sky,  appearing  to  the  inhabitants  of  one  region  like  broad  semi- 
circles of  light  extending  completely  across  the  heavens,  to  other 
regions  like  large  segments  of  an  arch,  the  highest  point  of 
which  elevated  only  twenty  or  thirty  degrees  above  the  horizon, 
and  to  the  places  adjacent  to  the  polar  regions  as  a zone  of  light 
hovering  in  the  horizon:  let  us  suppose  the  distant  stars  twink- 
ling through  the  dark  space  which  separates  the  rings;  the  sun 
eclipsed  at  noon,  in  one  place,  by  the  upper  edge  of  the  rings,  and 
in  another  place  by  the  lower;  the  brightness  of  this  luminary 
waxing  dimmer  and  dimmer,  and,  in  a few  hours,  hid  by  an  in- 
visible object,  not  to  appear  again  till  after  a lapse  of  fourteen 
years;  and  the  inhabitants  of  this  region  of  shadows  occasionally 
travelling  to  those  countries  where  the  rings  are  enlightened,  and 
the  sun  is  constantly  shining:  let  us  suppose  one  moon,  nine 
times  as  large  in  apparent  size  as  ours,  suspended  in  the  canopy 
of  heaven;  another,  three  times  as  large  as  ours,  in  another 
quarter  of  the  sky;  a third,  twice  as  large;  a fourth,  about  the 
apparent  size  of  our  moon;  and  a fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  of 
different  apparent  magnitudes:  some  of  them  appearing  with  a 
crescent,  some  with  a gibbous  phase,  and  others  with  a full  en- 
lightened hemisphere, — some  rising,  some  setting, — one  entering 
into  an  eclipse,  and  another  emerging  from  it:  let  us  suppose 
such  scenes  as  these,  and  we  may  acquire  a general  idea  of  the 
phenomena  presented  in  the  heavens  of  Saturn. 

Scenery  of  the  Heavens  in  Uranus . — The  orbit  of  this  planet, 
so  far  as  we  know,  forms  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  planetary 
system.*  Being  so  far  removed  from  the  centre  of  the  system, 
almost  all  the  other  planets  and  their  satellites  will  be  invisible 
to  a spectator  placed  on  this  orb.  The  only  planet  which  will 
be  distinctly  visible  is  Saturn,  which  will  be  seen  occasionally  as 
a morning  and  evening  star,  and  will  appear  nearly  of  the  same 


See  Appendix. 


APPEARANCES  FROM  URANUS. 


319 


size  as  to  us;  but  as  it  will  always  be  seen  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  sun,  it  will  only  be  visible  at  certain  dis- 
tant periods,  or  intervals  of  fifteen  years,  and  will  appear  about 
as  near  to  the  sun  as  Mercury  does,  when  viewed  from  the  earth. 
Its  rings  and  satellites  might  occasionally  be  perceived  with  such 
instruments  as  our  best  telescopes,  when  it  is  near  the  point  of 
its  greatest  elongation.  It  is  not  probable  that  Jupiter  will  be 
visible  from  this  planet,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  sun. 
If  ever  it  be  visible,  it  will  only  be  for  a short  time,  after  periods 
of  six  or  eight  years  have  elapsed.  From  Uranus,  it  is  likely 
that  the  motions  of  some  of  the  comets  will  be  seen  to  advan- 
tage, and  for  a considerable  length  of  time,  as  the  motions  of 
these  bodies  must  be  comparatively  slow  in  those  distant  regions. 
It  is  not  improbable  that,  in  their  course  from  the  sun,  the  motions 
of  some  of  these  bodies  may  be  followed  to  the  extreme  point  of 
their  trajectories,  and  their  courses  traced  in  their  return  towards 
the  central  luminary;  and  that  they  may  be  visible,  in  the  fir- 
mament of  this  planet,  for  months,  and  even  for  years  together. 
It  is  likewise  probable  that,  from  Uranus,  the  parallax  of  the 
nearest  fixed  stars,  and  consequently  their  distance , may  be 
ascertained.  For  the  diameter  of  its  orbit,  which  is  3,600,000,000 
of  miles,  will  form  a pretty  extensive  base  line  for  this  purpose, 
and  will  produce  a parallax  nineteen  times  greater  than  that  of 
the  diameter  of  the  earth’s  annual  orbit,  which  is  only  190  mil- 
lions of  miles.  But  the  determination  of  such  a parallax  would 
require  a series  of  observations  made  at  intervals  of  forty-two 
years — namely,  at  two  opposite  points  of  the  orbit  of  Uranus,  in 
moving  between  which  it  occupies  a space  of  nearly  forty-two 
years. 

The  most  splendid  and  interesting  scenery  in  the  firmament 
of  this  planet  will  be  produced  by  the  phases,  eclipses,  revolu- 
tions, and  various  aspects  of  its  moons.  Six  of  these  bodies  have 
been  discovered  revolving  around  it,  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  several  more  (perhaps  three  or  four)  may  be  connected  with 
this  distant  orb,  the  smallness  of  which,  and  their  nearness  to 
the  planet,  may  for  ever  prevent  them  from  being  detected  by 
our  most  powerful  instruments.  Let  us  suppose,  then,  one  satel- 
lite presenting  a surface  in  the  sky  eight  or  ten  times  larger  than 
our  moon;  a second,  five  or  six  times  larger;  a third,  three  times 
larger;  a fourth,  twice  as  large;  a fifth,  about  the  same  size  as 
the  moon;  a sixth  somewhat  smaller;  and  perhaps  three  or  four 
others  of  different  apparent  dimensions:  let  us  suppose  two  or 


320 


APPEARANCES  FROM  URANUS. 


three  of  these,  of  different  phases,  moving  along  the  concave  of 
the  sky,  at  one  period  four  or  five  of  them  dispersed  through  the 
heavens, — one  rising  above  the  horizon,  one  setting,  one  on  the 
meridian,  one  towards  the  north,  and  another  towards  the  south, 
— at  another  period  five  or  six  of  them  displaying  their  lustre  in 
the  form  of  a half  moon  or  a crescent,  in  one  quarter  of  the  hea- 
vens; and  at  another  time  the  whole  of  these  moons  shining, 
with  full  enlightened  hemispheres,  in  one  glorious  assemblage — 
and  we  shall  have  a faint  idea  of  the  beauty,  variety,  and 
sublimity,  of  the  firmament  of  Uranus.  What  is  deficient,  in 
respect  of  the  invisibility  of  the  other  planets,  is  amply  compen- 
sated by  its  assemblage  of  satellites,  which  illuminate  and  diver- 
sify its  nocturnal  sky.  Although  this  planet  is  more  than 
seventeen  hundred  millions  of  miles  nearer  some  of  the  fixed  stars 
than  we  are,  yet  those  luminaries  will  not  appear  sensibly  larger, 
as  seen  from  Uranus,  than  they  do  from  our  globe.  For  even 
this  immense  interval  would  not  subtend  an  angle  of  nineteen 
seconds,  or  the  part  of  a degree,  as  seen  from  the  nearest 
star;  and,  of  course,  all  the  constellations  will  present  the  same 
figures  and  relative  aspects  as  they  do  to  us,  with  this  difference 
only,  that  those  stars  which  are  near  our  equator  or  tropics  may 
be  near  the  poles  or  polar  circles  of  Uranus.  This  depends  entirely 
upon  the  position  of  its  axis  of  rotation,  which  is  to  us  unknown. 
The  sun  will  appear  so  small,  from  this  planet,  that  its  apparent 
diameter  will  not  exceed  times  the  apparent  diameter  of 
Jupiter;  but  its  light  is  not  so  weak  as  we  might  be  apt  to 
imagine  from  this  circumstance,  as  is  evident  from  the  brightness 
it  exhibits  when  viewed  with  a telescope  in  the  night  time,  and 
likewise  from  the  well  known  phenomenon  that  when  the  sun  is 
eclipsed  to  us,  so  as  to  have  only  the  one-fortietli  part  of  its  disk 
left  uncovered  by  the  moon,  the  diminution  of  light  is  not  very 
sensible;  and  it  has  been  frequently  noticed  that,  at  the  end  of 
the  darkness,  in  total  eclipses,  when  the  sun’s  western  limb 
begins  to  be  visible,  and  seems  no  bigger  than  a thread  of  fine 
silver  wire,  the  increase  of  light  is  so  considerable,  and  so  quickly 
illuminates  all  surrounding  objects,  as  to  strike  the  spectators 
with  surprise.  But,  whatever  deficiency  of  light  there  may  be 
on  this  planet,  we  may  rest  assured,  from  a consideration  of  the 
wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  Creator,  that  this  deficiency  is 
amply  compensated  either  b}'  the  objects  on  which  it  falls  being 
endowed  with  a strong  reflective  power,  or  by  the  organs  of 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY  OF  THE  MOON.  321 

vision  being  adapted  to  the  light  received,  or  by  some  other 
contrivances  with  which  we  are  unacquainted. 

SCENERY  OF  THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  FROM  THE  SATELLITES. 

Celestial  Scenery  of  the  Moon . — Although  the  moon  is  the 
nearest  body  to  the  earth,  and  its  constant  attendant,  yet  its 
celestial  phenomena  will,  in  a variety  of  respects,  be  very  dif- 
ferent from  ours.  The  earth  will  appear  to  be  the  most  splendid 
orb  in  its  nocturnal  sky,  and  its  various  phases  and  relative 
positions  will  form  a subject  of  interesting  inquiry  and  contem- 
plation to  its  inhabitants.  It  will  present  the  appearance  of  a 
globe  in  the  sky  thirteen  times  larger  than  the  moon  does  to  us, 
and  will  diffuse  nearly  a corresponding  portion  of  light  on  the 
mountains  and  vales  on  the  lunar  surface.  As  the  moon  always 
presents  nearly  the  same  side  to  our  view,  so  the  earth  will  be 
visible  to  only  one-half  of  the  lunar  inhabitants.  Those  who  live 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  moon,  which  is  never  turned  towards 
our  globe,  will  never  see  the  earth  in  the  sky,  unless  they 
undertake  a journey  to  the  opposite  hemisphere  for  this  purpose; 
and  those  who  dwell  near  the  central  parts  of  that  hemisphere 
which  is  turned  from  our  globe,  will  require  to  travel  more  than 
1500  miles  before  they  can  behold  the  large  globe  of  the  earth 
suspended  in  the  sky.  To  all  those  to  whom  the  earth  is  visible, 
it  will  appear  fixed  and  immovable  in  the  same  relative  point  of 
the  sky,  or,  at  least,  will  appear  to  have  no  circular  motion  round 
the  heavens.  To  a spectator  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  moon’s 
visible  hemisphere,  the  earth  will  appear  directly  in  the  zenith, 
or  over  head,  and  will  always  seem  to  be  fixed  very  nearly  in 
that  position.  To  a spectator  placed  in  any  part  of  the  ex- 
tremity of  that  hemisphere,  or  what  seems  to  us  to  be  the 
margin  of  the  moon,  the  earth  will  appear  always  nearly  in  the 
horizon;  and  to  spectators  at  intermediate  positions,  the  earth 
will  appear  at  higher  or  lower  elevations  above  the  horizon,  ac- 
cording to  their  distance  from  the  extremities  or  the  central  parts 
of  that  hemisphere.  But,  although  the  earth  appears  fixed  nearly 
in  the  same  part  of  the  sky,  there  is  a slight  variation  produced 
by  what  is  termed  the  lihration  of  the  moon  (see  p.  231),  by 
which  it  appears  to  turn,  occasionally,  a small  portion  of  its  opr 
posite  hemisphere  towards  the  earth.  In  consequence  of  this 
libration,  the  earth  will  appear  now  and  then  to  shift  its  position 


322  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  EARTH  TO  THE  MOON. 


a little,  by  a kind  of  vibratory  motion,  so  that  those  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  hemisphere,  who  see  the  earth  in  their  horizon, 
will  sometimes  see  it  dip  a little  below,  and  at  other  times  rise  a 
little  above  their  horizon.  This  vibratory  motion  they  will  pro- 
bably be  disposed,  at  first  view,  to  attribute  to  the  earth,  which 
they  will  naturally  consider  as  a body  nearly  at  rest,  but  subject 
to  a vibratory  movement  like  that  of  a pendulum,  whereas  this 
apparent  vibration  proceeds  from  the  moon  itself. 

The  earth  is  continually  shifting  its  phases  as  seen  from  the 
moon.  When  it  is  new  moon  to  us,  it  is  full  moon  to  the  lunar 
inhabitants,  as  the  hemisphere  of  the  earth  next  the  moon  is 
then  fully  enlightened;  so  that,  at  the  time  when  the  sun  is 
absent,  they  enjoy  the  effulgence  of  a full  moon  thirteen  times 
larger  than  ours.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  first  quarter  to  us, 
the  earth  is  in  the  third  quarter  to  them;  and,  in  every  other 
case,  the  phases  of  the  earth  are  exactly  opposite  to  those  which 
the  moon  presents  to  us,  (see  p.  230.)  The  earth  passes  through 
all  the  phases  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  a month;  but  the 
progress  of  these  phases  will  be  more  regularly  and  accurately 
perceived  than  that  of  the  moon’s  phases  are  by  us.  When 
it  is  night  in  the  moon — and  the  nights  there  are  a fortnight 
long — the  inhabitants  see  at  first  only  a small  part  of  the  earth 
enlightened,  like  a slender  crescent;  then  a larger  and  a larger 
portion,  till  at  length  it  becomes  entirely  luminous.  During  the 
whole  of  these  changes  the  earth  is  every  moment  visible,  and 
apparently  fixed  in  the  same  immovable  position;  and  as  there 
are  no  clouds  in  the  lunar  atmosphere,  the  view  of  the  earth,  and 
of  the  variation  of  its  phases,  will  never  be  interrupted.  Whereas, 
these  changes  in  the  moon  are  visible  to  us  only  from  one  night 
to  another,  and,  by  the  interposition  of  clouds,  the  moon  is  fre- 
quently hid  from  our  view  for  seven  or  eight  days  together.  By 
means  of  the  light  thus  diffused  by  the  earth  upon  the  moon,  it 
so  happens  that  the  side  of  the  moon  next  the  earth  is  never  in 
darkness;  for,  when  the  sun  is  absent,  the  earth  shines  in  the  fir- 
mament with  a greater  or  less  degree  of  splendour;  but,  when 
the  sun  is  absent  from  the  other  hemisphere,  the  inhabitants  have 
no  light  but  what  is  derived  from  the  stars  and  planets.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  light  of  these  luminaries  is  more 
brilliant  as  seen  from  the  moon  than  from  the  earth,  as  the  lunar 
atmosphere  is  more  pure  and  transparent  than  that  of  the  earth, 
and  as  no  clouds  or  dense  vapours  exist  in  it  to  intercept  the  rays 
of  those  distant  orbs;  and  the  stars  and  planets  will  constantly 


earth’s  rotation  as  perceived  in  the  moon.  323 


shine  in  the  firmament  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon  with  un- 
diminished lustre.  Perhaps,  too,  there  may  be  some  arrangement 
for  providing  additional  light  to  that  hemisphere,  in  the  absence 
of  the  sun,  either  by  the  coruscations  of  some  phosphoric  sub- 
stance, or  by  something  analogous  to  our  aurora  borealis. 

Whether  the  earth  will  throw  as  much  light  upon  the  moon, 
in  proportion  to  its  size , as  the  moon  diffuses  upon  the  earth,  is 
somewhat  doubtful.  I am  disposed  to  think  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  terraqueous  globe  will  not  reflect  so  much 
light  in  proportion  to  its  bulk,  as  the  general  surface  of  the 
moon;  for,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  earth  is  covered  with  water, 
and  as  water  absorbs  a considerable  portion  of  the  rays  of  light, 
the  seas  and  oceans  will  present  a more  dark  and  sombre  aspect 
than  any  part  of  the  lunar  orb  presents  to  us.  But  it  is  highly 
probable,  that  the  continents  and  islands  will  exhibit  a lustre 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  moon. 

Although  the  earth  will  seem  nearly  fixed  in  one  position,  yet 
its  rotation  round  its  axis  will  be  distinctly  perceptible , and 
will  present  a variety  of  different  appearances.  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  will  present  themselves,  one  after  another, 
in  different  shapes,  nearly  as  they  are  represented  on  our  maps 
and  globes;  and  the  regions  near  our  poles,  which  we  have  never 
yet  had  it  in  our  power  to  explore,  will  be  distinctly  seen  by  the 
lunarians,  who  will  be  enabled  to  determine  whether  they  chiefly 
consist  of  land  or  of  water.  The  several  continents,  seas,  islands, 
lakes,  peninsulas,  plains,  and  mountain  ranges,  will  appear  like 
so  many  spots,  of  different  forms  and  degrees  of  brightness, 
moving  over  its  surface.  When  the  Pacific  ocean,  which  occupies 
nearly  half  the  globe,  is  presented  to  view,  the  great  body  of  the 
earth  will  assume  a dusky  or  sombre  aspect,  except  towards  the 
north,  the  north-east,  and  north-west ; and  the  islands  connected 
with  this  ocean  will  exhibit  the  appearance  of  small  lucid  spots 
on  a dark  ground.  But  when  the  eastern  continent  turns  round 
to  view,  the  earth  (especially  its  northern  parts)  will  appear  to 
shine  with  a greater  degree  of  lustre.  These  appearances  will 
be  diversified  by  the  numerous  strata  of  clouds  which  are  con- 
tinually carried  by  the  winds  over  different  regions,  and  will 
occasionally  intercept  their  view  of  certain  parts  of  the  conti- 
nents and  seas,  or  render  their  appearance  more  obscure  at  one 
time  than  at  another.  It  is  likewise  probable,  that  the  occasional 
storms  in  tropical  climates,  and  the  changes  produced  in  different 
countries  by  summer  and  winter,  will  cause  the  earth  to  present 

y 2 


324  APPEARANCES  OF  THE  PLANETS 

a diversity  of  aspect  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon.  The  bands 
of  ice  which  surround  the  poles  will  alternately  exhibit  a kind 
of  lucid  circle,  while  the  verdant  plains  will  appear  of  a different 
colour,  and  assume  a milder  aspect.  By  means  of  these  dif- 
ferent spots,  the  lunarians  will  be  enabled  to  determine  the  exact 
period  of  the  earth’s  rotation,  as  we  determine  that  of  the  sun 
by  the  appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  spots  on  its  surface. 
And  as  the  period  of  the  earth’s  rotation  never  varies,  it  may 
serve  as  a clock  or  dial  for  the  exact  measure  of  time;  and  the 
lesser  divisions  of  this  period  may  be  ascertained  by  the  appear- 
ance, on  the  margin  of  the  central  parts  of  the  earth’s  hemisphere, 
of  certain  seas,  continents,  or  large  islands,  which  will  constantly 
appear  on  certain  parts  of  the  earth’s  disk  at  regular  intervals  of 
time.  Through  telescopes  such  as  ours,  the  variegated  aspect 
of  the  earth,  in  its  diurnal  motion,  would  present  to  us,  were  we 
placed  on  the  moon,  a novel  and  most  interesting  appearance. 

The  apparent  diurnal  motions  of  the  sun,  the  planets,  and  the 
stars,  will  appear  much  slower,  and  somewhat  different  in  several 
respects,  from  what  they  do  to  us.  When  the  sun  rises  in  their 
eastern  horizon,  his  progress  through  the  heavens  will  be  so 
slow  that  it  will  require  more  than  seven  of  our  days  before  he 
come  to  the  meridian,  and  the  same  time  before  he  descend  to 
their  western  horizon;  for  the  days  and  nights  of  the  moon  are 
nearly  fifteen  days  each,  and  they  are  nearly  of  an  equal  length 
on  all  parts  of  its  surface;  as  its  axis  is  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  ecliptic,  and,  consequently,  the  sun  never  removes  to  any 
great  distance  from  the  equator.  During  the  day,  the  earth  will 
appear  like  a faint  cloudy  orb,  always  in  the  same  position;  and 
during  night,  the  stars  and  planets  will  be  visible,  without  inter- 
ruption^ for  fifteen  days,  and  will  be  seen  moving  gradually, 
during  that  time,  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  horizon* 
Though  the  earth  will  always  be  seen  in  the  same  point  of  the 
sky,  both  by  day  and  night,  yet  it  will  appear  to  be  constantly 
shifting  its  position  with  respect  to  the  planets  and  the  stars^ 
which  will  appear  to  be  regularly  moving  from  the  east  to  the 
west  of  it,  and  some  of  them  will  occasionally  be  hid,  or  suffer 
an  occultation , for  three  or  four  hours,  behind  its  body.  The 
sun,  planets,  and  fixed  stars  will  appear  exactly  of  the  same  ap- 
parent magnitudes  as  they  do  from  the  earth;  but  as  the  poles 
of  the  moon  are  directed  to  points  of  the  heavens  different  from 
those  to  which  the  poles  of  the  earth  are  directed,  the  pole  stars 
in  the  lunar  firmament,  and  the  stars  which  mark  its  equator  and 


FROM  THE  MOON. 


325 


parallels,  will  all  be  different  from  ours;  so  that  the  stars,  in 
their  apparent  diurnal  revolutions,  will  appear  to  describe  circles 
different  from  those  which  they  describe  in  our  sky.  The 
inferior  planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  will  generally  be  seen  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  sun,  as  they  are  from  the  earth;  but 
they  will  be  more  distinctly  perceived,  and  be  visible  for  a much 
longer  period  of  time,  after  sunset,  than  they  are  from  our  globe. 
This  is  owing,  1,  to  the  transparency  of  the  lunar  atmosphere, 
and  the  absence  of  dense  vapours  near  the  horizon,  which,  in 
our  case,  prevent  any  distinct  observations  of  the  celestial  bodies 
when  at  a low  altitude;  and  2,  to  the  slow  apparent  diurnal 
motion  of  these  bodies.  When  Mercury  is  near  its  greatest 
elongation,  it  will  remain  above  the  horizon  more  than  thirty 
hours  after  the  sun  has  set,  and,  consequently,  will  be  visible  for 
a much  longer  time  in  succession  than  it  is  to  us.  When  Venus 
is  near  its  greatest  elongation,  it  will  be  seen,  without  intermis- 
sion, either  as  a morning  or  an  evening  star,  for  a space  of  time 
equal  to  more  than  three  of  our  days.  The  superior  planets,  as 
with  us,  will  be  seen  in  different  parts  of  the  heavens,  and  occa- 
sionally in  opposition  to  the  sun;  but  they  will  appear  to  be 
continually  shifting  their  positions  with  respect  to  the  earth. 
Jupiter,  for  example,  will  at  one  time  appear  adjacent  to  the 
earth,  and,  in  the  course  of  fifteen  days,  will  be  seen  in  the  very 
opposite  quarter  of  the  heavens,  and  in  other  fifteen  days  will  be 
again  in  conjunction  with  the  earth;  and  nearly  the  same  ap- 
pearances will  be  observed  in  reference  to  the  other  planets,  but 
the  periodic  times  of  their  conjunctions  with  the  earth,  and  oppo- 
sitions to  it,  will  be  somewhat  different,  owing  to  the  difference 
of  their  velocities  in  their  annual  revolutions. 

The  eclipses  of  the  sun  which  happen  to  the  lunarians  will  be 
more  striking,  and  total  darkness  will  continue  for  a much  longer 
time  than  with  us.  When  a total  eclipse  of  the  moon  happens 
to  us,  there  will  be  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun  to  the  lunarians.  At 
that  time,  the  dark  side  of  the  earth  is  completely  turned  towards 
the  moon,  and  the  sun  will  appear  to  pass  gradually  behind  the 
earth  till  it  entirely  disappear.  The  time  of  the  continuance  of 
total  darkness , in  central  eclipses,  will  be  nearly  two  hours;  and, 
of  course,  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun  will  be  a far  more  striking 
and  impressive  phenomenon  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon  than 
to  us.  A complete  darkness  will  ensue  immediately  after  the 
body  of  the  sun  is  hid,  and  the  stars  and  planets  will  be  as 
clearly  seen  as  at  midnight.  When  a partial  eclipse  of  the 


326 


LUNAR  ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN. 


moon  happens  to  us,  all  that  portion  of  the  moon’s  surface  over 
which  the  shadow  of  the  earth  passes  will  suffer  a total  eclipse  of 
the  sun  during  the  period  of  its  continuance.  On  other  parts  of 
the  moon’s  surface  there  will  be  a partial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and 
to  those  who  are  beyond  the  range  of  the  earth’s  shadow  no  eclipse 
will  appear.  When  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  happens  to  us,  the 
lunarians  will  behold  a dark  spot  with  a penumbra,  or  fainter 
shade,  around  it,  moving  across  the  disk  of  the  earth,  which  then 
appears  a full  enlightened  hemisphere,  excepting  the  obscurity 
caused  by  the  progress  of  the  shadow.  The  inhabitants  on  the 
other  hemisphere  of  the  moon  can  never  experience  a solar 
eclipse,  as  the  earth  can  never  interpose  between  the  sun  and 
any  part  of  that  hemisphere,  so  that  they  will  only  know  of  such 
phenomena  by  report,  unless  they  undertake  a journey  for  the 
purpose  of  observing  them. 

The  study  of  astronomy  in  the  moon  will,  on  the  whole,  be 
more  difficult  and  complex  than  to  us  on  the  earth.  The 
phenomena  exhibited  by  the  earth  will  be  the  most  difficult  to 
explain.  The  lunarians,  at  first  view,  will  be  apt  to  imagine 
that  the  earth  is  a quiescent  body  in  their  firmament,  because  it 
appears  in  the  same  point  of  the  sky,  and  that  the  other  heavenly 
orbs  revolve  around  it.  It  will  require  numerous  observations 
of  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  the  earth,  the  planets,  and 
the  stars,  and  numerous  trains  of  reasoning  respecting  the 
phenomena  they  exhibit,  before  they  are  convinced  that  the 
globe  on  which  they  dwell  really  moves  round  the  earth,  and 
that  both  of  them  move  in  a certain  period  around  the  sun.  If 
they  be  endowed  with  no  higher  powers  than  man,  or  if  they  be 
as  foolish  and  contumacious  as  the  great  bulk  of  mankind,  it 
will  be  more  difficult  to  convince  them  of  the  true  system  of  the 
world  than  it  has  been  for  our  astronomers  to  convince  a certain 
portion  of  our  community  that  the  earth  turns  round  its  axis, 
and  performs  a revolution  round  the  sun.  They  will  naturally 
think,  as  we  did  formerly,  that  their  habitation  is  in  a quiescent 
state,  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  all  the  other  bodies 
in  the  heavens,  except  the  earth,  revolve  around  it;  and  the 
singular  phenomena  which  our  globe  exhibits  in  their  sky, 
with  its  diversified  aspect,  its  diurnal  rotation,  and  occasional 
vibrations , will  puzzle  them  not  a little  in  attempting  to  find  out 
a proper  explanation.  It  will  be  somewhat  difficult  for  them  to 
ascertain  the  exact  length  of  their  year,  or  the  time  of  their 
revolution  round  the  sun.  There  are  only  two  ways  by  which 


ASTRONOMY  OF  THE  LUNARIANS. 


327 


we  can  conceive  they  will  be  enabled  to  determine  this  point — 
1.  By  observing  when  either  of  the  poles  of  the  earth  begins  to 
be  enlightened,  and  the  other  pole  to  disappear,  which  is  always 
at  the  time  of  our  equinoxes.  2.  By  observing  the  course  of 
the  sun  among  the  stars,  and  endeavouring  to  ascertain  when 
he  returns  to  the  same  relative  position  in  reference  to  any  of 
these  orbs.  The  length  of  the  lunar  year  is  about  the  same  as 
ours,  but  differing  as  to  the  number  of  days,  the  lunarians 
having  only  12-^  days  in  their  year,  every  day  and  night  being 
as  long  as  29\  of  ours.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lunar  astronomers 
will  enjoy  some  advantages  in  making  celestial  observations, 
which  we  do  not  possess.  Those  who  live  on  the  side  next  the 
earth  will  be  enabled  to  determine  the  longitude  of  places  on  the 
lunar  surface  with  as  much  ease  as  we  can  find  the  latitude  of 
places  on  our  globe.  For  as  the  earth  keeps  constantly  over 
one  meridian  of  the  moon,  (or  very  nearly  so,)  the  east  and  west 
distances  of  places  from  that  meridian  may  be  readily  found, 
by  taking  the  altitude  of  the  earth  above  the  horizon,  or  its  dis- 
tance from  the  zenith,  on  the  same  principle  as  we  obtain  the 
latitude  of  a place,  by  taking  the  altitude  of  the  pole  star,  or  the 
height  of  the  equator  above  the  horizon.  The  lunar  astronomers 
will  likewise  possess  advantages  superior  to  ours,  in  the  purity 
of  their  atmosphere,  and  the  greater  degree  of  brilliancy  with 
which  the  heavenly  bodies  will  appear;  and,  in  particular,  they 
enjoy  a singular  advantage  above  a terrestrial  astronomer  in  the 
length  of  their  nights , which  gives  them  an  opportunity  of  con- 
templating the  heavenly  bodies,  particularly  Mercury  and 
Yenus,  and  tracing  their  motions  and  aspects  for  a length  of 
time  without  intermission. 

Such  are  some  of  the  peculiar  phenomena  of  the  heavens  as 
beheld  from  the  moon.  However  different  these  phenomena 
may  appear  from  those  which  are  beheld  in  our  terrestrial 
firmament,  they  are  all  owing  to  the  following  circumstances: — 
that  the  moon  moves  round  the  earth  as  the  more  immediate 
centre  of  its  motion, — that  it  turns  always  the  same  side  to  the 
earth,  and,  consequently,  that  it  moves  round  its  axis  in  the 
same  time  in  which  it  moves  round  the  earth.  These  slight 
differences  in  the  motions  and  relative  positions  of  the  earth  and 
moon  are  the  principal  causes  of  all  the  peculiar  aspects  of  the 
lunar  firmament  which  we  have  now  described.  And  this  con- 
sideration shows  us  how  the  Creator  may,  by  the  slightest 
changes  in  the  positions  and  arrangements  of  the  celestial  orbs, 


328 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY 


produce  an  indefinite  variety  of  scenery  throughout  the  universe, 
so  that  no  world,  or  system  of  worlds,  shall  present  the  same 
scenery  and  phenomena  as  another.  And  so  far  as  our  know- 
ledge and  observation  extend,  this  appears  to  be  one  of  the 
grand  principles  of  the  Divine  arrangements  throughout  the 
system  of  Creation;  which  will  be  still  more  apparent  from 
the  sketches  I am  now  about  to  give  of  the  phenomena  presented 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  satellites  connected  with  the  other 
planets. 

The  Scenery  of  the  Heavens  from  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter. — 
The  scenery  of  the  firmament,  as  beheld  from  the  satellites  of 
this  planet,  will  bear  a certain  analogy  to  what  we  have  now 
described  in  relation  to  the  moon,  but  it  will  be  much  more  di- 
versified and  resplendent.  The  most  striking  and  glorious  object 
in  the  firmament  of  the  first  satellite  is  the  planet  itself.  The 
distance  of  this  satellite  from  the  centre  of  Jupiter  being  only 
about  three  diameters  of  that  body,  it  will  appear  in  the  heavens 
like  an  immense  globe,  above  thirteen  hundred  times  larger 
than  the  apparent  size  of  our  moon,  and  will  occupy  a con- 
siderable portion  of  the  celestial  hemisphere.  To  those  who 
live  in  the  middle  of  the  hemisphere  of  this  satellite,  opposite  to 
Jupiter,  this  vast  globe  will  appear  in  the  zenith,  filling  a large 
portion  of  the  sky  directly  above  them,  equal  to  19  degrees  of  a 
great  circle,  so  that  nine  or  ten  of  such  bodies  would  reach  from 
one  side  of  the  heavens  to  another.  To  those  in  other  situations 
it  will  appear  at  different  elevations  above  the  horizon,  according 
to  their  distances  from  the  central  parts  of  that  hemisphere.  This 
huge  globe,  in  the  course  of  twrenty-one  hours,  will  exhibit  a 
crescent,  a half-moon,  a gibbous  phase,  and  a full  enlightened 
hemisphere,  so  that  its  appearance  will  be  perpetually  changing. 
When  it  shines  with  a full  face,  it  will  exhibit  a most  glorious 
appearance ; it  will  reflect  an  immense  quantity  of  light  upon  the 
satellite,  and  all  the  varieties  on  its  surface  will  be  beautifully 
perceived.  In  the  day-time  it  will  present  a cloudy  appearance, 
continually  changing  its  form,  and  when  its  dark  side  is  turned 
to  the  satellite,  it  will  probably  become  invisible;  but  it  will 
never  be  altogether  invisible  beyond  two  or  three  hours  at  a time, 
till  its  enlightened  crescent  again  begin  to  appear.  We  find,  by 
the  telescope,  that  the  surface  of  Jupiter  is  diversified  with  a 
variety  of  belts,  which  frequently  change  their  appearance,  and 
sometimes  by  bright  and  dark  spots.  Now,  all  the  varieties  on 
its  surface,  and  the  changes  which  may  take  place  in  its  atmo- 


from  jupiter’s  satellites. 


329 


sphere,  will  be  pretty  distinctly  seen  from  the  surface  of  this  satel- 
lite; and  as  Jupiter  turns  round  its  axis  in  the  space  of  less  than 
ten  hours,  every  hour  will  present  a new  scene  upon  its  surface. 
This  expansive  and  variegated  surface  of  Jupiter,  its  diurnal 
rotation,  and  its  rapid  changes  of  phases,  will  therefore  form  a 
most  wonderful  and  interesting  spectacle  to  the  inhabitants  of 
this  satellite. 

The  three  other  satellites  will  likewise  increase  the  variety 
and  the  lustre  of  its  firmament.  The  second  satellite,  in  its  course 
round  Jupiter,  will  frequently  come  within  160,000  miles  of  the 
first,  which  is  its  nearest  approach  to  it ; at  which  time,  that  satel- 
lite will  appear  with  a face  nearly  three  times  as  large  as  our 
moon.  At  other  times,  it  will  be  680,000  miles  distant,  and  will 
appear  more  than  sixteen  times  smaller  than  in  the  former 
position.  At  the  time  when  J upiter  presents  its  dark  hemisphere 
to  the  first  satellite,  if  the  second  satellite  be  then  at  its  nearest 
distance,  or  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  it  will  shine  with  a full  en- 
lightened hemisphere  upon  the  first  satellite.  At  other  times  it 
will  assume  a half-moon,  a crescent,  or  a gibbous  phase;  and 
these  phases  will  not  only  be  rapidly  changing,  but  the  apparent 
magnitude  of  the  satellite  will  likewise  be  rapidly  increasing  or 
diminishing.  While,  at  one  period,  it  shines  with  a large  and 
full  enlightened  face,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  of  our  days  it 
will  appear  as  a slender  crescent,  and  more  than  twelve  or 
sixteen  times  less  in  apparent  diameter  than  before.  The  third 
and  fourth  satellites  will  exhibit  phenomena  somewhat  similar; 
but  as  their  distance  is  greater  than  that  of  the  second,  their 
apparent  magnitudes  will  be  smaller,  and  the  changes  of  their 
phases  will  be  less  frequent,  in  proportion  to  the  slowness  of 
their  motions,  and  the  length  of  the  periods  of  their  revolutions. 
The  eclipses  of  the  sun,  which  so  frequently  happen  to  the  first 
satellite,  from  the  interposition  of  the  body  of  Jupiter,  will  form 
very  interesting  and  impressive  phenomena.  Every  forty-two 
hours,  this  satellite  suffers  a solar  eclipse  for  the  space  of  more 
than  two  hours;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  is  chiefly  at  such 
times  that  the  starry  firmament  appears  in  all  its  splendour,  and 
affords  its  inhabitants  an  opportunity  of  tracing  the  motions  and 
contemplating  the  phenomena  of  the  distant  bodies  of  the 
universe.  For,  at  other  times,  the  blaze  of  reflected  light  from 
the  body  of  Jupiter,  and  from  the  other  satellites,  will,  in  all 
probability,  prevent  the  greater  part  of  the  fixed  stars  from 
being  distinctly  perceived;  so  that  these  eclipses,  instead  of 


330 


SCENERY  PRESENTED  TO 


being  an  evil,  or  a cause  of  annoyance,  to  the  inhabitants,  will 
increase  their  enjoyment,  will  add  to  the  variety  of  their  celestial 
scenery,  and  open  to  them  prospects  of  the  grandeur  of  the 
starry  firmament,  and  the  distant  regions  of  creation. 

What  has  been  now  stated  in  reference  to  the  first  satellite,  may 
also  be  applied  in  general  to  the  other  three  satellites,  with  this 
difference,  that  Jupiter  will  appear  of  a different  apparent  magni- 
tude from  each  satellite;  and  the  motions,  magnitudes,  and  aspects 
of  the  other  satellites  will  likewise  be  somewhat  different.  In 
each  satellite,  the  great  globe  of  Jupiter,  suspended  motionless 
in  the  sky,  will  be  the  most  conspicuous  object  in  the  heavens. 
To  the  second  satellite  this  globe  will  appear  about  470  times 
larger  than  our  moon;  to  the  third , 180  times;  and  to  the  fourth , 
about  80  times  the  apparent  surface  of  the  full  moon.  But  each 
satellite  will  have  certain  other  phenomena  peculiar  to  itself \ 
which  it  would  be  too  tedious  to  describe.  To  all  of  them,  the 
occultations  of  the  other  satellites  by  the  body  of  Jupiter, — their 
eclipses  by  falling  into  its  shadow, — the  varieties  on  its  surface, 
caused  by  its  diurnal  rotation, — the  shadows  of  the  satellites 
passing  like  dark  spots  across  its  disk, — the  transits  of  the  satel- 
lites themselves,  like  full  moons  crossing  the  orb  of  Jupiter, — 
the  diversified  phenomena  of  eclipses,  some  of  them  happening 
when  the  satellite  is  like  a crescent,  or  half-moon,  and  some  of 
them  when  it  appears  as  a full  enlightened  hemisphere;  and 
various  other  circumstances,  will  afford  an  indefinite  variety  of 
celestial  phenomena;  and  scarcely  a single  day  will  pass  in  which 
some  of  these  phenomena  are  not  observed.  The  length  of  the 
day  is  different  in  each  satellite.  In  the  first  satellite  the  length 
of  the  day  and  night  is  42  hours,  27  minutes;  in  the  second,  3 
days,  13  hours;  in  the  third,  7 days,  3^  hours;  and  in  the  fourth, 
16  days,  16^  hours.  The  starry  heavens  will  therefore  appear 
to  make  a revolution  round  each  satellite  in  these  respective 
times.  The  other  satellites  will  also  appear  to  make  a diurnal 
revolution,  but  in  periods  of  time  somewhat  different.  The 
variety  of  motions,  and  other  phenomena,  to  which  we  have  now 
alluded,  and  particularly  the  rotation  of  Jupiter,  and  the  varia- 
tion of  its  phases,  will  afford  various  accurate  measures  of  time 
to  all  the  satellites.  The  following  figure  contains  a rude  sketch 
of  a portion  of  the  firmament  as  it  will  appear  from  one  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter. 


JUPITER  S SATELLITES, 


331 


In  this  figure,  suppose  the  larger  circle  at  the  top  to  represent 
one  of  the  satellites,  as  seen  in  the  firmament  of  the  fourth  satel- 
lite, and  suppose  it  appears  with  a surface  twice  the  size  of  our 
moon;  Jupiter  would  require  to  bo  double  the  size  here  repre- 
sented, and  more  than  fifteen  times  larger  to  represent  its  com- 
parative size  as  viewed  from  the  first  satellite.  The  larger  circle 
represents  Jupiter,  when  exhibiting  a gibbous  phase  to  the  satel- 
lite; the  three  other  figures  are  the  other  satellites  under  dif- 
ferent phases. 

Celestial  Scenery  of  the  Satellites  of  Saturn . — What  has  been 
stated  above  in  relation  to  J upiter’s  satellites  will  apply,  in  part, 
to  those  of  Saturn.  But  the  satellites  of  this  planet  have  like- 
wise celestial  scenery  peculiar  to  themselves , and  the  scenes 
presented  to  one  satellite  are,  in  some  respects,  different  to  those 
represented  to  all  the  rest.  One  of  the  most  singular  phenomena 
in  their  firmament  is,  the  diversified  appearance  of  the  body  of 
Saturn,  and  that  of  its  rings,  which  will  be  beheld  in  their  sky 


332 


SCENERY  FROM  SATURN’S  SATELLITES. 


under  a great  variety  of  aspects.  To  describe  all  the  variety  of 
phenomena  peculiar  to  each  satellite  connected  with  Saturn 
would  almost  require  a separate  treatise,  and  therefore  I shall 
state  only  two  or  three  prominent  facts  in  relation  to  the  first 
and  seventh , or  the  innermost  and  outermost  satellites.  The 
first  satellite  being  only  80,000  miles  distant  from  the  surface 
of  Saturn,  and  only  18,000  miles  from  the  outer  edge  of  the 
rings,  the  globe  of  Saturn,  and  its  stupendous  rings,  must  present 
a very  august  and  striking  appearance  in  its  nocturnal  firmament. 
The  hemisphere  of  Saturn  contains  an  area  more  than  1300 
times  larger  than  that  of  our  moon ; consequently,  if  the  first 
satellite  were  placed  at  the  same  distance  from  Saturn  as  our 
moon,  the  surface  of  that  planet  would  appear,  from  the  satellite, 
1300  times  larger  than  the  moon  does  to  us.  But  the  satellite 
is  only  120,000  miles  from  the  centre  of  Saturn,  or  half  the 
distance  of  the  moon  from  the  centre  of  the  earth;  therefore 
Saturn  will  appear  four  times  larger,  or  5200  times  greater,  as 
seen  from  this  satellite,  than  the  moon  when  viewed  from  the 
earth.  The  moon  occupies  only  the  part  of  our  celestial 

hemisphere,  but  the  globe  of  Saturn  will  fill  nearly  the  one 
seventeenth  part  of  the  visible  firmament  of  its  first  satellite; 
and  if  we  take  the  extent  of  the  rings  into  account,  they  will 
occupy  a space  two  or  three  times  greater;  so  that  the  planet 
and  its  rings  will  present  a most  grand  and  magnificent  object 
in  the  canopy  of  heaven,  of  which  we  can  form  only  a very  faint 
conception.*  It  is  not  likely  that  more  than  one-half  of  the  globe 
of  Saturn  will  be  visible  from  this  satellite,  on  account  of  the 
interposition  of  the  rings;  and  as  it  moves  in  an  orbit  which  is 
nearly  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  rings,  the  surfaces  of  these 
rings  will  be  seen  in  a very  oblique  direction  ; but  still  they  will 
exhibit  a most  resplendent  appearance.  When  the  edge  of  the 
exterior  ring  is  opposite  to  the  satellite,  and  enlightened  by  the 

* These  calculations  proceed  on  the  assumption,  that  the  whole  hemisphere 
of  Saturn  would  be  seen  from  the  first  satellite.  But  as  this  satellite  revolves 
in  an  orbit  which  is  less  than  two  diameters  of  that  planet  from  its  centre,  there 
will  not  be  much  more  than  three-fourths  of  its  hemisphere  visible  from  the 
surface  of  that  satellite,  so  that  Saturn  will  appear  only  about  4000  times  larger 
than  the  apparent  size  of  our  moon.  And  if  the  one-half  of  the  body  of  Saturn 
be  intercepted  by  its  rings,  it  will  appear  only  about  2000  times  larger  than 
our  nocturnal  luminary.  Notwithstanding  such  deductions,  it  will  still  present 
to  the  view  a most  august  and  resplendent  appearance.  On  the  same  grounds, 
a certain  deduction  must  be  made  in  relation  to  what  was  stated  respecting  the 
Appearance  of  the  planet  Jupiter  from  its  first  satellite,  p.  328.  . ..t 


SCENERY  FROM  SATURN’S  SATELLITES. 


333 


sun,  it  will  present  a large  arch  of  light  in  the  heavens  on  each 
side  of  the  planet,  above  which  will  appear  half  the  hemisphere 
of  Saturn.  If  the  satellite  turn  round  its  axis  in  the  same  time 
in  which  it  revolves  round  the  planet,  as  is  probable,  Saturn  and 
its  rings  will  appear  stationary  in  the  heavens,  and  the  planet 
will  present  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  satellite  a variety  of  phases, 
such  as  a half-moon  and  a crescent,  besides  the  variety  of  objects 
which  will  appear  on  the  surface  of  Saturn  during  its  rotation 
on  its  axis.  The  rings  will  likewise  appear  to  vary  their 
aspect  during  every  revolution,  besides  the  variety  of  objects 
they  will  present  during  their  rotation.  At  one  time  they 
will  exhibit  large  and  broad  luminous  arches;  at  another  time, 
they  will  appear  as  narrow  streaks  of  light;  and  at  another,  they 
will  appear  like  dark  belts  across  the  disk  of  Saturn.  And  as 
this  satellite  moves  round  the  planet  in  the  course  of  22^  hours, 
these  appearances  will  be  changing  almost  every  hour.  The 
appearances  of  the  six  other  satellites,  continually  varying  their 
phases,  their  apparent  magnitudes,  and  their  relative  aspects — 
their  positions  in  respect  to  the  body  of  Saturn  and  its  rings — 
their  occultations  by  the  interposition  both  of  the  rings  and  the 
planet,  and  the  eclipses  to  which  they  are  frequently  subjected, 
will  produce  a diversity  of  phenomena,  and  a grandeur  un- 
exampled in  the  case  of  any  other  moving  bodies  in  our  system. 
The  second  satellite,  when  in  opposition  or  at  its  nearest  position 
to  the  first,  will  be  only  thirty  thousand  miles  distant,  and 
although  its  real  size  were  no  greater  than  our  moon,  it  will 
present  a surface  sixty-four  times  larger  than  the  full  moon  does 
iu  our  sky.  It  will  appear  in  all  the  phases  of  the  moon  in  the 
course  of  less  than  thirty-six  hours,  and  will  be  continually 
changing  its  apparent  magnitude,  on  account  of  its  removing 
further  from  or  nearer  to  the  first  satellite.  The  third  satellite* 
will  appear  nearly  half  as  large,  as  it  is  only  seventy  thousand 
miles  distant  at  its  nearest  approach;  and  will  present  nearly  the 
same  varieties  as  the  other.  All  the  other  satellites  will  appear 
smaller  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  orbit  of  the  first; 
but  they  will  all  appear  much  larger  than  our  moon,  except  the 
seventh,  or  outermost  satellite,  which  will  appear  considerably 
smaller.  Perhaps  the  sixth  satellite  from  Saturn  will  not  appear 
larger  than  our  moon. 


* Here  the  satellites  are  distinguished  according  to  the  order  of  their  dis- 
tances from,  Saturn,  „ • - - 


334 


GRANDEUR  OF  THE  HEAVENS 


The  seventh,  or  outermost  satellite,  which  is  reckoned  among 
the  largest,  will  have  a scenery  in  its  sky  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  the  first.  As  its  orbit  is  materially  inclined  to  the 
rings,  its  inhabitants  will  have  a more  ample  prospect  of  these 
rings,  and  of  the  body  of  Saturn,  than  several  of  the  other  satel- 
lites, although  these  objects  are  beheld  at  a greater  distance,  and 
consequently  will  not  fill  so  large  a portion  of  its  sky.  Their 
appearance,  however,  will  not  be  destitute  of  splendour;  for  this 
satellite  is  400  times  nearer  Saturn  than  we  are,  and  the  body  of 
this  planet  will  appear  about  sixteen  times  larger  than  the  moon 
to  us,  and  its  rings  will  occupy  a space  proportionably  more  ex- 
pansive. The  phases  of  Saturn  and  its  rings,  and  the  various 
changes  of  aspect  which  they  assume,  will  be  more  distinctly 
perceptible,  though  on  a smaller  scale,  than  from  some  of  the 
interior  satellites;  for  the  whole  body  of  the  planet,  as  well  as 
the  rings,  will,  in  most  cases,  appear  full  in  view.  The  other 
six  satellites  will  be  seen  in  all  the  different  phases  and  aspects 
above  described,  and  they  will  never  appear  to  recede  to  any 
great  distance  from  the  body  of  Saturn;  but  will  appear  first  on 
one  side,  and  then  on  another,  and  sometimes  either  above  or 
below  the  planet,  as  Mercury  and  Venus  appear  to  us  in  respect 
to  the  sun,  and,  consequently,  that  portion  of  the  heavens  in 
which  Saturn  appears  will  present  a most  splendid  appearance. 
In  this  respect,  the  relative  positions  of  the  satellites,  as  seen 
from  the  outermost,  will  be  different  from  their  aspects  and 
positions  as  viewed  from  the  innermost  satellite,  where  they  will 
sometimes  appear  in  regions  of  the  sky  directly  opposite  to 
Saturn.  All  the  other  satellites  of  this  planet  will  have  pheno- 
mena peculiar  to  themselves , in  their  respective  firmaments,  and 
in  all  of  them  these  phenomena  will  be  exhibited  on  a scale  of 
grandeur  and  magnificence.  But  to  enter  into  details  in  refer- 
ence to  each  satellite  might  prove  tedious  to  the  general  reader. 

Let  us,  then,  conceive  a firmament  in  which  is  suspended  a 
globe  several  thousands  of  times  larger  than  the  apparent  size  of 
our  moon — let  us  conceive  luminous  arches,  still  more  expansive, 
surrounding  this  globe — let  us  conceive  six  moons,  of  different 
apparent  magnitudes,  some  of  them  sixty  times  larger  in  appa- 
rent size  than  ours — let  us  conceive,  further,  all  these  magni- 
ficent bodies  sometimes  appearing  in  one  part  of  the  heavens, 
and  sometimes  in  another— -changing  their  phases  and  apparent 
magnitudes  and  distances  from  each  other,  every  hour — appear- 
ing sometimes  like  a large  crescent,  sometimes  like  a small, 


FROM  THE  SATELLITES  OF  SATURN. 


335 


sometimes  shining  with  a full  enlightened  face,  and  sometimes 
suffering  a total  eclipse — sometimes  hid  behind  the  large  body  of 
the  planet,  and  sometimes  crossing  its  disk  with  a rapid  motion, 
like  a circular  shadow — let  us  suppose  these  and  many  other 
diversified  phenomena  presenting  themselves,  with  unceasing 
variety,  in  the  canopy  of  heaven,  and  we  shall  have  some  faint 
idea  of  the  grandeur  of  the  firmament  as  seen  from  some  of  the 
satellites  of  Saturn. 

No  delineations,  except  on  a very  large  scale,  could  convey 
any  tolerable  idea  of  the  objects  now  described.  Fig.  103 
exhibits  a rude  idea  of  the  firmament,  as  viewed  from  the  first 
or  second  satellite  of  Saturn;  but  the  body  of  Saturn  and  the 
ring  should  be  eight  or  ten  times  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  moons  or  satellites  there  represented.  As  the  orbits 
of  the  inner  satellites  are  nearly  on  the  same  plane  as  the  rings, 
they  will  appear  in  an  oblique  position,  and  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  division  between  the  rings  will  be  distinctly  visible. 


Fig.  103. 


336 


VIEWS  OF  CELESTIAL  SCENERY. 


The  opposite  part  of  the  ring,  or  that  which  is  most  distant  from 
the  satellite,  will  appear  smaller  than  the  side  which  is  nearest 
it;  and  only  one-half  of  the  body  of  Saturn  will  be  seen,  the 
other  half  being  hid,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  the  ring. 

Fig.  104  represents  the  firmament  of  the  seventh,  or  outer-? 
most  satellite.  As  its  orbit  is  considerably  inclined  to  the  plane 
of  the  ring,  the  whole  body  of  the  planet  will  frequently  be  seen 
within  the  rings,  which  will  appear  as  ovals  around  it.  The  six 
Other  satellites  will  appear  in  the  vicinity  of  Saturn  and  its 
rings,  none  of  them  ever  removing  to  any  considerable  distance 
from  the  edge  of  the  rings,  and  some  of  them  may  occasionally 
be  seen  moving  in  the  open  space  between  the  planet  and  the 
rings.  In  this  figure,  Saturn  and  the  rings  should  be  consider- 
ably larger  in  proportion  to  the  moons  than  they  are  here  repre-. 
sented. 

Fig.  104. 


Celestial  Scenery  as  viewed  from  the  Rings  of  Saturn . — Sup- 
posing the  rings  to  be  inhabited,  which  there  is  as  much  reason 
to  believe  as  that  the  planet  itself  is  a habitable  globe,  it  is 
probable  that  there  is  a greater  diversity  of  celestial  scenery  and 
of  sublime  objects  presented  to  view  than  any  we  have  yet  de- 
scribed. There  will  be  at  least  six  varieties  of  celestial  scenery, 


SCENERY  FROM  THE  RINGS  OF  SATURN. 


337 


according  as  the  spectator  is  placed  on  different  parts  of  the 
rings.  One  variety  of  scene  will  be  exhibited  from  the  exterior 
edge  of  the  outer  ring — a second  variety  from  the  interior  edge 
of  the  inner  ring — a third  variety  from  the  interior  edge  of  the 
outer  ring — a fourth,  from  the  exterior  edge  of  the  inner  ring — 
a fifth,  from  the  sides  of  the  rings  enlightened  by  the  sun — and 
a sixth  variety  from  the  opposite  sides,  which  are  turned  away 
from  the  sun,  and  enjoy,  for  a time,  only  the  reflected  light  from 
the  satellites.  To  describe  all  these  varieties  in  minute  detail 
would  be  tedious,  and  at  the  same  time  unsatisfactory,  without 
the  aid  of  diagrams  and  figures  on  a very  enlarged  scale,  and 
therefore  I shall  chiefly  confine  myself  to  a general  description 
of  one  of  these  celestial  views. 

Those  who  live  on  the  sides  of  the  rings  will  behold  the  one- 
half  of  the  hemisphere  of  Saturn,  which  will  fill,  perhaps,  the 
one-fifth  or  the  one- sixth  part  of  their  celestial  hemisphere, 
while  the  other  portions  of  the  planet  will  be  hid  by  the  inter- 
position of  the  rings.  Those  who  are  near  the  inner  edge  of  the 
interior  ring,  are  only  thirty  thousand  miles  from  the  surface  of 
Saturn,  and,  consequently,  all  the  varieties  upon  its  surface  will 
be  distinctly  perceived.  Those  near  the  outer  edge  of  the 
exterior  ring  are  about  sixty  thousand  miles  distant  from  the 
planet,  which  will  consequently  appear  to  them  four  times  less 
in  size  than  to  the  former;  but  being  only  eighteen  thousand 
miles  from  the  first  satellite,  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to 
Saturn,  that  satellite  will  present  an  object  more  than  350  times 
larger  than  our  moon,  which  will  rapidly  assume  different  phases, 
which  will  be  continually  varying  in  its  apparent  magnitude;  and 
at  its  greatest  distance,  beyond  the-  opposite  side  of  the  rings,  it 
will  appear  at  least  170  times  less  than  when  in  the  nearest 
point  of  its  orbit;  and  all  the  intermediate  varieties  of  magnitude 
and  aspect  will  be  accomplished  within  less  than  two  days.  So 
that  this  satellite  will  be  continually  changing  its  apparent  size, 
from  an  object  two  or  three  times  the  apparent  bulk  of  our  moon 
to  one  350  times  greater.  The  same  may  be  affirmed  in  respect 
to  the  other  six  satellites,  with  this  exception,  that  they  will 
' appear  of  a smaller  magnitude,  and  the  periodic  times  of  their 
phases  and  the  changes  in  apparent  magnitude  will  be  different. 

Another  object  which  will  diversify  the  firmament  of  those 
who  are  on  one  of  the  sides  of  the  rings,  is  the  opposite  portions 
of  the  rings  themselves.  These  will  appear  proceeding  from 
each  side  of  the  planet,  like  large  broad  arches  of  light,  each  of 

z 


338 


SCENES  FROM  THE 


them  somewhat  less  than  a quadrant,  and  will  fill  a very  large 
portion  of  the  sky,  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  world  will 
behold  a portion  of  their  own  habitation  forming  a conspicuous 
part  of  their  celestial  canopy,  and,  at  first  view,  may  imagine, 
that  it  forms  a celestial  object  with  which  they  have  no  imme- 
diate connexion.  Were  they  to  travel  to  the  opposite  part  of 
the  ring,  they  would  see  the  habitation  they  had  left  suspended 
in  the  firmament,  without  being  aware  that  the  spot  which  they 
left  forms  a portion  of  the  phenomenon  they  behold.  As  the 
rings  revolve  round  the  planet,  and  the  planet  revolves  round  its 
axis,  the  different  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  planet  will  present 
a different  aspect,  and  its  variety  of  scenery  will  successively  be 
presented  to  the  view.  The  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  of  the 
satellites,  by  the  interposition  of  the  body  of  Saturn,  and  of  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  rings,  will  produce  a variety  of  striking 
phenomena,  which  will  be  diversified  almost  every  hour. 

From  the  dark  side  of  the  rings,  which  are  turned  away  from 
the  sun  for  fifteen  years,  a great  variety  of  interesting  pheno- 
mena will  likewise  be  presented;  and  during  this  period,  the 
aspect  of  the  firmament  will  in  all  probability  be  most  vivid  and 
striking.  This  portion  of  the  rings  will  not  be  in  absolute  dark- 
ness during  the  absence  of  the  sun,  for  some  of  the  seven  satel- 
lites will  always  be  shining  upon  it — sometimes  three,  sometimes 
four,  and  sometimes  all  the  seven,  in  one  bright  assemblage.  It 
is  probable,  too,  that  the  planet,  like  a large  slender  crescent, 
will  occasionally  diffuse  a mild  splendour;  and,  in  the  occasional 
absence  of  these,  the  fixed  stars  will  display  their  radiance  in 
the  heavens,  which  will  be  the  principal  opportunity  afforded  for 
studying  and  contemplating  those  remote  luminaries.  Those 
who  are  on  the  outermost  ring  will  behold  the  other  ring,  and 
the  opposite  parts  of  their  own,  like  vast  arches  in  the  heavens; 
and  although  only  2800  miles  intervene  between  the  two  rings, 
that  space  may  be  as  impassable  as  is  the  space  which  intervenes 
between  us  and  the  moon. 

If  the  two  rings  have  a rotation  round  Saturn  in  different 
periods  of  time,  as  is  most  probable,  it  will  add  a considerable 
variety  to  the  scenery  exhibited,  by  the  different  objects  which 
will  successively  appear  in  the  course  of  the  rotation. 

The  numerous  splendid  objects  displayed  in  the  heavens,  as 
seen  from  these  rings,  would  afford  a grand  and  diversified 
appearance  for  telescopic  observations,  surpassing  in  variety  and 
sublimity  whatever  is  displayed  in  any  other  region  of  the  solar 


RINGS  OF  SATURN. 


339 


system;  by  which  some  of  the  objects  might  he  contemplated, 
as  if  they  were  placed  within  the  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  miles. 

The  following  figure  (105)  represents  a view  of  the  firmament 
from  one  of  the  sides  of  the  rings,  in  which  is  seen  half  of  the 
hemisphere  of  Saturn,  with  a portion  of  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
rings,  projecting,  as  it  were,  from  each  side  of  the  planet,  the 
central  part  being  hid  by  the  interposition  of  its  body.  From 
the  inner  edge  of  the  interior  ring  the  whole  hemisphere  of 
Saturn  will  be  visible.  The  body  of  Saturn  and  the  rings  should 
be,  at  least,  twenty  times  larger  than  here  represented,  so  as  to 
be  proportionate  to  the  apparent  size  of  the  satellites. 

Fig.  105. 


Celestial  Scenery  from  the  Satellites  of  Uranus . — After  what 
we  have  stated  respecting  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  it  would  be 
needless  to  enter  into  detail  respecting  the  celestial  views  from 
the  satellites  of  this  planet,  as  they  will  bear  a striking  analogy  to 
those  of  the  moons  of  Jupiter;  but  the  firmament  of  each  satellite 

z 2 


340 


SCENERY  FROM  THE  SATELLITES  OF  URANUS. 


of  Uranus  will  be  more  diversified  than  that  of  any  of  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter;  as  there  are  six  satellites  connected  with  this  planet, 
and  probably  three  or  four  more,  which  lie  beyond  the  reach  of 
our  telescopes.  From  its  first  satellite,  the  body  of  Uranus  will 
appear  nearly  three  hundred  times  larger  than  the  apparent  size 
of  the  moon  in  our  sky,  and  consequently  will  appear  a very 
grand  and  magnificent  object  in  its  firmament,  while  the  other 
five  moons,  in  different  phases  and  positions,  will  serve  both  to 
illuminate  its  surface,  and  to  diversify  the  scene  of  the  heavens. 
To  the  second  satellite,  Uranus  will  appear  about  180  times 
larger  than  the  moon  to  us;  and  to  the  other  satellites  it  will 
present  a smaller  surface  in  proportion  to  their  distance.  Each 
satellite  will  have  its  own  peculiarity  of  celestial  phenomena; 
but  after  what  we  have  already  stated  in  the  preceding  descrip- 
tions, it  would  be  inexpedient  to  enter  into  details.  I shall 
therefore  conclude  these  descriptions  with  the  following  re- 
marks:— 

1 .  In  the  preceding  descriptions,  the  apparent  magnitudes  of 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  as  seen  from  the  satellites,  and  the 
apparent  magnitudes  of  the  satellites,  as  seen  from  each  other, 
are  only  approximations  to  the  truth,  so  as  to  convey  a general 
idea  of  the  scenes  displayed  in  their  respective  firmaments; 
perfect  accuracy  being  of  no  importance  in  such  descriptions. 

2.  The  variety  of  celestial  phenomena  in  the  firmaments  of  these 
bodies  is  much  greater  than  we  have  described.  Were  we  to 
enter  into  minute  details  in  relation  to  such  phenomena,  it  would 
require  a volume  of  considerable  size  to  contain  the  descrip- 
tions. For  in  the  system  of  Saturn  itself  there  is  more  variety  of 
phenomena  than  in  all  the  other  parts  of  the  planetary  system. 

3.  Machinery  would  be  requisite  in  order  to  convey  clear  ideas 
of  some  of  the  views  alluded  to  in  the  preceding  descriptions — 
particularly  in  relation  to  the  rings  and  satellites  of  Saturn — in 
which  the  proportional  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  respec- 
tive bodies  would  require  to  be  accurately  represented.  An 
instrument  of  considerable  size  and  complication  of  machinery 
would  be  requisite  for  exhibiting  all  the  phenomena  connected 
with  Saturn;  and  one  of  the  principal  difficulties  would  be  to 
produce  a diurnal  rotation  of  the  rings  round  Saturn,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  they  had  no  immediate  connexion  with  it, 
and  while  their  thickness  was  no  greater  in  proportion  to  their 
breadth  than  what  is  found  in  nature,  which  is  only  about  the 
•3-^5-  part  of  the  breadth  of  the  two  rings,  including  the  empty 


REMARKS  ON  CELESTIAL  SCENERY. 


341 


space  between  them.  4.  The  diversity  of  celestial  scenery  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  is  an  evidence  of  the  infinite  variety 
which  exists  throughout  the  universe,  and  shows  us  by  what 
apparently  simple  means  this  variety  is  produced.  We  are  thus 
led  to  conclude,  that  among  all  the  systems  and  worlds  dispersed 
throughout  boundless  space,  there  is  no  one  department  of 
creation  exactly  resembling  another.  This  is  likewise  exempli- 
fied in  the  boundless  variety  exhibited  in  our  world,  in  the 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms.  5.  The  alternations 
of  light  and  darkness,  and  the  frequent  eclipses  of  the  celestial 
luminaries,  which  happen  among  the  bodies  connected  with 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  so  far  from  being  inconveniences 
and  evils,  may  be  considered  as  blessings  and  enjoyments.  For 
it  is  only,  or  chiefly,  when  their  inhabitants  are  deprived  of  the 
direct  light  of  the  sun,  or  its  reflection  from  the  satellites,  that 
the  starry  heavens  will  appear  in  all  their  glory;  and  as  the 
interval  in  which  they  are  thus  deprived  of  light  is  short,  and  as 
it  adds  to  the  variety  of  the  celestial  scene,  it  must  be  productive 
of  pleasure  and  enjoyment.  6.  The  same  planets  will  be  seen 
in  the  firmaments  of  the  satellites  as  in  those  of  their  primaries: 
but  they  will  be  seldom  visible,  on  account  of  the  large  portion 
of  reflected  light  which  will  be  diffused  throughout  their  sky, 
except  in  those  cases  when  their  nocturnal  luminaries  suffer  an 
occupation,  or  a total  eclipse.  The  bodies  more  immediately 
connected  with  their  own  system  will  form  the  chief  objects  of 
their  attention  and  contemplation,  and  will  appear  more  interest- 
ing and  magnificent  than  any  phenomena  connected  with  more 
distant  worlds.  7.  On  all  the  satellites,  and  particularly  on  the 
rings  of  Saturn,  it  will  be  more  difficult  to  ascertain  the  true 
system  of  the  universe  than  in  any  other  point  of  the  solar 
system.  I have  already  alluded  to  the  difficulty  of  determining 
the  true  system  of  the  world  as  observed  from  the  moon;  but  it 
will  be  still  more  difficult  in  the  case  of  observers  placed  on  the 
rings  or  satellites  of  Saturn.  The  numerous  bodies  which  are 
seen  every  hour  shifting  their  aspects  and  positions — the  apparent 
complication  of  motions  which  they  will  exhibit — their  phases, 
eclipses,  and  rapid  diminution  of  apparent  size,  combined  with 
the  apparent  diurnal  revolution  of  the  heavens,  and  of  all  the 
bodies  in  their  firmament — will  require  numerous  and  accurate 
observations,  and  powers  of  intellect  superior  to  those  of  man, 
in  order  to  determine  with  precision  their  place  in  the  solar 
system,  and  the  true  theory  of  the  universe. 


342 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  A PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS,  WITH  AN 
ILLUSTRATION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  ARGUMENTS  BY  WHICH 
IT  MAY  BE  SUPPORTED. 

In  the  preceding  descriptions  of  the  facts  connected  with  the 
bodies  which  compose  the  planetary  system,  and  of  the  celestial 
scenery  displayed  in  their  respective  firmaments,  I have  assumed 
the  position,  that  they  are  all  peopled  with  intellectual  beings. 
This  is  a conclusion  to  which  the  mind  is  almost  necessarily  led, 
when  once  it  admits  the  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  by 
modern  astronomers.  It  requires,  however,  a minute  knowledge 
of  the  whole  scenery  and  circumstances  connected  with  the 
planetary  system,  before  this  truth  comes  home  to  the  under- 
standing with  full  conviction.  As  in  the  preceding  pages  I have 
stated,  with  some  degree  of  minuteness,  the  prominent  facts 
connected  with  all  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system,  (excepting 
comets,)  so  far  as  they  are  yet  known,  the  way  is  now  prepared 
for  bringing  forward  a few  arguments  founded  on  these  facts, 
which  will  require  less  extensive  illustrations  than  if  I had 
attempted  to  discuss  this  topic  without  the  previous  descriptions. 
It  may  be  proper,  however,  to  state,  that,  in  this  volume,  I pro- 
pose to  bring  forward  only  a few  of  those  arguments  or  consi- 
derations by  which  the  position  announced  above  may  be 
corroborated  and  supported,  leaving  the  discussion  of  the  re- 
maining arguments  to  another  volume,  in  which  the  other  por- 
tions of  the  scenery  of  the  heavens  will  be  described.  This  is 
rendered  almost  indispensable,  on  account  of  the  size  to  which 
the  present  volume  has  already  swelled. 

SECTION  i. 

The  first  argument  I shall  adduce  in  support  of  the  doctrine 
of  a plurality  of  worlds  is,  that  there  are  bodies  in  the  planetary 
system  of  such  magnitudes  as  to  afford  ample  scope  for  the 
abodes  of  myriads  of  inhabitants . 

This  position  has  been  amply  illustrated  in  the  preceding 
parts  of  this  volume,  particularly  in  chap.  iii.  From  the  state- 
ments contained  in  chap,  vi.,  it  appears  that  the  whole  planetary 


VAST  EXTENT  OF  THE  SOLAR  WORLDS. 


343 


bodies,  exclusive  of  the  sun,  comprehend  an  area  of  more  than 
seventy-eight  thousand  millions  of  square  miles , which  is  three 
hundred  and  ninety -seven  times  the  area  of  our  globe;  so  that 
the  surfaces  of  all  the  planets  and  their  satellites  are  equal,  in 
point  of  space,  to  397  worlds  such  as  ours.  But  as  the  greater 
part  of  our  globe  is  covered  with  water,  and  consequently  is 
unfit  for  the  permanent  residence  of  rational  beings,  and  as  we 
have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  other  planets  have  such  a 
proportion  of  water  on  their  surface,  if  we  compare  the  habit- 
able parts  of  the  earth  with  the  extent  of  surface  on  the  planets, 
we  shall  find  that  they  contain  one  thousand  five  hundred  and 
ninety-five  times  the  area  of  all  that  portion  of  our  globe  which 
can  be  inhabited  by  human  beings.  If  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  solid  contents  of  these  globes,  we  find  that  they  are 
more  than  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty  times  the  bulk 
of  our  globe;  and  the  number  of  inhabitants  they  would 
contain,  at  the  rate  of  England’s  population,  is  no  less  than 
21,895,000,000,000,  or  nearly  twenty -two  billions , which  is  more 
than  twenty-seven  thousand  times  the  present  population  of  our 
globe.  In  other  words,  the  extent  of  surface  on  all  the  planets, 
their  rings  and  satellites,  in  respect  of  space  for  population,  is 
equivalent  to  27,000  worlds  such  as  ours  in  its  present  state. 

Now,  can  we  for  a moment  imagine,  that  the  vast  extent  of 
surface  on  such  magnificent  globes  is  a scene  of  barrenness  and 
desolation — where  eternal  silence  and  solitude  have  prevailed, 
and  will  for  ever  prevail;  where  no  sound  is  heard  throughout 
all  their  expansive  regions;  where  nothing  appears  but  inter- 
minable deserts,  diversified  with  frightful  precipices  and  gloomy 
caverns;  where  no  vegetable  or  mineral  beauties  adorn  the 
landscape;  where  no  trace  of  rational  intelligence  is  to  be  found 
throughout  all  their  wastes  and  wilds;  and  where  no  thanks- 
givings, nor  melody,  nor  grateful  adorations,  ascend  to  the  Ruler 
of  the  skies?  To  suppose  that  such  is  the  state  of  these  capa- 
cious globes,  would  exhibit  a most  gloomy  and  distorted  view  of 
the  character  and  attributes  of  the  Creator.  It  would  represent 
him  as  exerting  his  creating  power  to  no  purpose;  and  as  acting 
in  a different,  and  even  in  an  opposite  character , in  different 
parts  of  his  dominions;  as  displaying  wisdom  in  one  part  of  his 
creation,  and  an  opposite  attribute  in  another.  For,  so  far  as 
we  are  able  to  penetrate,  it  appears  demonstrable,  that  matter 
exists  chiefly,  if  not  solely , for  the  sake  of  sensitive  and  intellec- 
tual beings;  either  to  serve  the  purpose  of  gratifying  the  senses, 


# 


344 


END  FOR  WHICH  MATTER  WAS  CREATED 


or  of  affording  a medium  of  thought  to  the  mental  faculty,  or  of 
exhibiting  to  the  mind  a sensible  display  of  the  existence  and 
perfections  of  the  Supreme  Intelligence.  And  if  it  serve  such 
purposes  in  this  part  of  the  creation  which  we  occupy,  reason 
says  that  it  must  serve  similar  purposes  in  other  regions  of  the 
universe.  How  incongruous  would  it  be  to  maintain  that  matter 
serves  such  purposes  in  our  terrestrial  sphere,  and  nowhere 
else,  throughout  the  range  of  the  planetary  system?  In  other 
words,  that  it  is  useful  to  sensitive  existences,  within  the  compass 
of  the  one  four  hundredth,  part  of  that  system,  but  serves  no 
useful  or  rational  purpose  in  the  other  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  parts;  for  the  area  of  the  earth,  as  above  stated,  is  only 
about  the  part  of  the  area  of  all  the  other  planets.  Such  a 
conclusion  can  never  be  admitted  in  consistency  with  those  per- 
fections which  both  natural  and  revealed  religion  attribute  to 
the  Deity.  If  matter  was  not  created  merely  for  itself,  but  for 
the  enjoyment  of  a superior  nature,  then  it  necessarily  follows, 
that  wherever  matter  exists , that  nobler  nature — whether  sensitive 
or  intellectual— -for  whose  sake  it  was  created , must  likewise  exist 
throughout  some  portions  of  its  extent.  To  replenish  one  com- 
paratively little  globe  with  sensitive  and  rational  inhabitants, 
and  to  leave  several  hundreds  empty,  desolate,  and  useless,  is  the 
perfect  reverse  of  art  and  contrivance,  and  altogether  incompa- 
tible with  the  conceptions  we  ought  to  form  of  Him  who  is 
“ the  only  wise  God,”  and  who  is  declared  to  have  displayed 
himself,  in  all  his  operations,  as  “wonderful  in  counsel,  and 
excellent  in  working.” 

In  accordance  with  this  sentiment,  we  find  the  inspired 
writers,  when  speaking  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  admitting  the 
validity  of  such  reasoning.  “Thus  saith  Jehovah  that  created 
the  heavens;  God  himself  that  formed  the  earth  and  made  it; 
he  hath  established  it;  he  created  it  not  in  vain;  he  formed 
it  to  be  inhabited.  I am  Jehovah,  and  there  is  none  else.”* 
Here  it  is  plainly  and  pointedly  declared,  that  to  create  the 
earth,  without  the  design  of  its  being  inhabited,  would  have 
been  a piece  of  folly  inconsistent  with  the  perfections  of  Him 
whose  intelligence  and  wisdom  are  displayed  throughout  all  his 
works.  To  have  left  it  empty  and  useless  would  have  been  “ to 
create  it  in  vain.”  It  would  neither  have  contributed  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  intellectual  beings,  nor  served  as  a manifestation  of  the 


* Isaiah,  xlv.  18. 


ILLUSTRATED  FROM  REVELATION. 


345 


intelligence,  wisdom,  and  beneficence  of  its  Creator.  This 
passage  likewise  intimates  that  it  is  the  ultimate  design  of 
Jehovah  that  this  world  shall,  ere  long,  be  fully  peopled  with 
inhabitants,  and  that  its  forests  and  desolate  wastes  shall,  in 
future  ages,  be  transformed  into  scenes  of  beauty  and  fertility, 
fitted  for  being  the  abodes  of  renovated  moral  agents  at  that 
period  when  “ the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  shall  cover  the  earth;” 
and  this  extension  of  population  and  of  cultivation  is  evidently 
going  forward,  with  rapid  progress,  at  the  present  time,  in  dif- 
ferent quarters  of  the  globe.  In  connexion  with  this  declaration 
respecting  the  earth,  it  is  also  declared,  that  the  same  Almighty 
Being  that  arranged  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  replenishing  it 
with  inhabitants,  likewise  “ created  the  heavens plainly  inti-  ' 
mating,  that  as  both  the  fabrics  were  erected  by  the  same  All- 
wise and  Omnipotent  Intelligence,  the  same  wisdom  is  displayed 
in  both,  and  that  the  same  grand  and  beneficent  designs  are 
accomplished  in  the  globes  which  roll  in  the  heavens  as  well  as 
in  the  constitution  of  the  earth  on  which  we  dwell.  If  the  one 
was  created  for  use , for  the  enjoyment  of  rational  natures,  and 
as  a theatre  on  which  the  Divine  perfections  might  be  displayed, 
so  was  the  other.  It  is  added,  “ I am  Jehovah,  and  there  is 
none  else;”  implying  that  there  is  a unity  of  principle,  design, 
and  operation,  in  all  his  plans  and  arrangements  throughout  the 
universe,  however  different  the  means  employed,  and  however 
varied  the  effects  produced  in  different  parts  of  his  dominions. 

Some,  however,  may  be  disposed  to  insinuate,  that  the  Deity 
may  have  designs  in  view,  in  the  creation  of  matter,  of  which 
we  are  altogether  ignorant,  and  that  the  planets  and  other  bodies 
in  the  heavens  may  display  the  Divine  glory,  in  some  way  or 
another,  although  they  be  not  peopled  with  inhabitants.  It  is 
readily  admitted  that  we  are  ignorant  of  many  of  the  purposes 
of  the  Deity,  of  the  details  of  his  operations  in  the  distant 
regions  of  creation,  and  of  many  of  the  plans  and  movements  of 
his  moral  government;  and  that,  through  an  eternal  lapse  of 
ages,  we  shall  always  remain  in  ignorance  of  some  of  the  works 
and  ways  of  the  Almighty.  But  there  are  certain  general  prin- 
ciples and  views  with  which  the  Deity  evidently  intends  all  his 
rational  creatures  should  be  acquainted.  It  was  evidently 
intended  that  the  visible  creation  should  adumbrate , as  it  were, 
the  character  of  him  who  produced  it;  or,  that  it  should  serve 
as  a mirror  in  which  his  existence,  and  some  of  his  perfections, 
might  be  clearly  perceived.  But,  if  the  great  globes  of  the 


346 


DESIGN  OF  CREATION. 


universe  were  destitute  of  inhabitants,  how  could  the  Divine 
glory  be  discovered  in  their  structure?  How  could  a confused 
mass  of  rubbish  and  desolation,  however  vast  and  extensive, 
display  the  intelligence,  the  wisdom,  and  the  benevolence  of  its 
Maker?  It  might  indicate  a power  surpassing  our  comprehen- 
sion, but  it  would  display  no  other  perfection  which  tends  to 
excite  the  admiration,  the  love,  and  the  adoration  of  rational 
beings.  Yet  we  are  informed  in  the  Scriptures,  that  celestial 
intelligences  celebrate  the  perfections  of  Jehovah,  “because 
he  hath  created  all  things,”  and  because  they  perceive  “ his 
works”  to  be  “ great  and  marvellous.”  They  ascribe  to  him 
“ wisdom,  and  glory,  and  honour,  and  power,  and  thanksgiving,” 
from  the  display  of  his  character  which  they  perceive  in  his 
works.  But  how  could  they  ascribe  to  him  such  perfections,  if 
the  mightiest  of  his  works  were  a scene  of  barrenness  and  deso- 
lation? Wisdom  can  be  attributed  only  where  there  appears  to 
be  a proportionating  of  means  to  ends ; and  goodness  can  have 
no  place  where  there  are  no  sensitive  or  rational  beings  to  enjoy 
the  effects  of  it.  It  is,  therefore,  a mere  evasion  to  assert  that 
the  Divine  glory  may  be  manifested  in  the  celestial  globes, 
although  destitute  of  inhabitants.  Every  part  of  the  character 
of  God  by  which  he  is  rendered  amiable  and  adorable  in  the 
eyes  of  his  intelligent  offspring,  would  be  obscured  and  distorted 
were  we  for  a moment  to  harbour  such  a sentiment.  For, 
wherein  does  the  Divine  glory  consist?  It  chiefly  consists  in 
the  display  of  infinite  wisdom , rectitude,  holiness,  and  unbounded 
beneficence;  and  where  such  attributes  are  not  manifested  they 
cannot  be  said  to  be  a display  of  Divine  glory.  But  such  attri- 
butes could  never  be  traced  by  man,  or  by  any  other  order  of 
intelligences,  were  the  planetary  bodies  and  the  other  orbs  of 
heaven  a scene  of  eternal  silence,  solitude,  and  waste;  where  no 
percipient  being  existed  to  taste  the  goodness,  or  to  adore  the 
perfections,  of  its  Creator. 

SECTION  II. 

Argument  II.  There  is  a general  similarity  among  all 
the  bodies  of  the  Planetary  System , which  tends  to  prove  that 
they  are  intended  to  subserve  the  same  ultimate  designs  in  the 
arrangements  of  the  Creator . 

In  the  elucidation  of  this  argument  it  will  be  requisite  that  a 
variety  of  facts,  some  of  which  have  been  noticed  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  should  be  brought  under  review.  We  are  not  to 


% 


GENERAL  SIMILARITY  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


347 


imagine  that  the  planets,  considered  as  habitable  worlds,  are 
arranged  exactly  according  to  the  model  of  our  terrestrial  habi- 
tation. For  the  Creator  has  introduced  an  infinite  variety  in 
every  department  of  his  works;  and  we  know  from  observation, 
that  there  are  certain  arrangements  connected  with  those  bodies 
which  are  very  different  from  those  which  are  found  in  con- 
nexion with  our  globe.  But  in  all  worlds  destined  for  the  habi- 
tation of  intellectual  natures,  we  should  expect  to  find  some 
general  analogy  or  resemblance  in  their  prominent  features,  and 
in  those  things  which  appear  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  such 
beings.  Were  we  to  attend  the  dissection  of  any  animal, — a 
dog,  for  example, — and  perceive  the  heart,  the  stomach,  the 
liver,  the  lungs,  the  veins,  arteries,  and  other  parts  essential  to 
life  and  enjoyment,  we  could  scarcely  doubt  that  the  same  organs, 
though  perhaps  somewhat  modified,  were  likewise  to  be  found 
in  a cat,  a bullock,  or  any  other  quadruped,  and  that  they  served 
the  same  purposes  in  all  these  animals.  In  like  manner,  when 
we  find  on  our  globe  certain  parts  and  arrangements  essentially 
requisite  to  its  being  a habitable  world,  and  when  we  likewise 
observe  similar  contrivances  connected  with  other  distant  globes, 
we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  that  they  are  intended  to 
subserve  similar  designs.  In  accordance  with  this  principle,  I 
shall  now  proceed  to  detail  a few  contrivances  and  arrangements 
in  the  other  planets,  which  evidently  indicate  that  their  grand 
and  ultimate  design  is  to  afford  enjoyment  to  sensitive  and 
intellectual  natures. 

1.  All  the  planets , both  primary  and  secondary,  are  of  a 
spherical  or  spheroidal  figure , similar  to  that  of  the  earth.  I 
have  already  shown  (p.  278)  that  this  figure  is  the  most 
capacious,  and  the  best  adapted  to  motion,  both  annual  and 
diurnal,  and  that  the  greatest  inconveniences  would  be  produced 
were  any  world  constructed  of  an  angular  figure.  The  only 
deviation  from  this  figure  is  to  be  found  in  the  rings  of  Saturn. 
But  these  rings  are  not  angular  bodies;  for  even  the  thin 
exterior  edge  of  the  rings  is  supposed,  from  some  minute  obser- 
vations, to  be  curved;  and,  if  so,  it  prevents  the  inconveniences 
which  would  arise  from  an  angular  construction.  The  flat  sides 
of  the  rings,  too,  appear  to  have  no  angular  elevations  or  protu- 
berances, more  than  what  may  be  supposed  from  a gently-waving 
surface,  such  as  that  of  our  globe;  and  although  they  are  not 
globular  bodies,  they  are  circular , with  thin  edges,  and  are  thus 
calculated  for  rapid  motion  along  with  the  planet;  and  the  flat 


348 


SPHERICAL  FIGURE  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


sides,  having  no  angular  projections,  appear  perfectly  adapted 
for  being  places  of  habitation,  without  any  of  those  inconveni- 
ences or  catastrophes  which  might  ensue  had  they  approximated 
to  a cubical,  prismatic,  or  pentagonal  form.  The  rings,  in  short, 
approximate  nearer  to  the  globular  figure  and  its  conveniences 
than  any  other  construction  could  have  done,  and  show  us,  that 
although  the  Creator  proceeds  in  his  operations  on  some  grand 
general  principles,  yet  he  is  not  limited  or  confined  to  one 
particular  figure  or  construction  in  arranging  the  celestial 
worlds.  The  planets,  then,  being  all  of  a globular  or  circular 
form,  appear  completely  adapted  for  being  the  abodes  of  living 
beings. 

2.  The  planets  are  solid  bodies  similar  to  the  earth.  They  are 
not  merely  a congeries  of  clouds  and  vapours  formed  into  a 
globular  shape,  but  possessed  of  weight,  solidity,  or  gravity. 
This  is  evident  from  the  dark  and  well-defined  shadows  which 
they  throw  on  other  bodies,  and  from  the  attractive  influence 
they  exert  throughout  the  system.  Their  figure  is  a proof  that 
they  possess  such  qualities;  for  their  roundness  proceeds  from 
an  equal  pressure  of  all  their  parts  tending  towards  the  same 
centre.  Nay,  astronomers,  by  the  aid  of  observation  and  mathe- 
matical calculations,  can  tell  what  are  the  relative  gravities  or 
weights  of  the  different  planets;  what  proportion,  for  instance, 
the  gravitation  in  Jupiter  or  Saturn  bears  to  that  of  our  earth, 
and  what  influence  their  attractive  power  produces  on  their  own 
satellites,  on  the  motion  of  comets,  and  on  the  smaller  and 
inferior  planets.  In  consequence  of  this  solidity  and  attractive 
power,  all  things  connected  with  their  surfaces  are  preserved  in 
security,  and  prevented  from  flying  off  to  the  distant  regions  of 
space;  for  it  is  this  power,  variously  modified  and  directed,  that 
preserves  the  material  universe  and  all  the  orders  of  beings 
connected  with  it,  in  compact  order  and  harmony,  without  the 
influence  of  which  all  things  in  heaven  and  earth  would  soon  be 
reduced  to  an  universal  chaos.  In  this  respect,  then,  as  well  as 
in  the  former,  the  planets  are  fitted  for  the  support  of  intel- 
lectual beings,  furnished  with  material  organs, 

3.  All  the  planets  have  an  annual  revolution  round  the  sun. 
This  revolution,  in  the  case  of  the  earth,  combined  with  the 
inclination  of  its  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  produces  the 
variety  of  seasons;  and  although  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  all 
the  planets  have  seasons  similar  to  ours,  or  that  the  heats  of 
summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  are  experienced  in  other  worlds, 


DIURNAL  ROTATION  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


349 


(see  pp.  106,  107,)  yet  there  is  a certain  variety  of  scene  produced 
by  this  revolution  in  all  the  planets,  particularly  in  those  which 
have  their  axes  of  rotation  inclined  more  or  less  to  the  plane  of 
their  orbits.  This  variety  of  scene  will  be  particularly  experi- 
enced on  Saturn,  and  on  the  surface  of  its  rings;  for  in  the 
course  of  one-half  of  the  annual  revolution,  the  sun  will  shine 
on  certain  parts  of  these  bodies,  and  during  the  other  half  they 
will  be  deprived  of  his  direct  influence.  The  annual  revolutions 
of  the  planets,  therefore,  appear  expedient,  in  order  to  produce 
an  agreeable  interchange  and  variety  of  scene,  for  the  purpose 
of  gratifying  their  inhabitants.  The  periods  of  these  revolu- 
tions, too,  are  adjusted  with  the  utmost  exactness.  The  planets 
perform  their  circuits  without  deviating  in  the  least  from  the 
paths  prescribed,  and  finish  their  revolutions  exactly  at  the 
appointed  time,  so  as  not  to  vary  the  space  of  a minute  in  the 
course  of  centuries.  Now,  were  these  bodies  merely  extensive 
regions  of  uncultivated  deserts,  or  were  they  placed  in  the  vault 
of  heaven  merely  that  a few  terrestrial  astronomers  might  peep 
at  them  occasionally  through  their  glasses,  it  is  not  at  all  likely 
that  so  much  care  and  accuracy  would  have  been  displayed  in 
marking  out  their  orbits,  and  adjusting  their  motions  and  revo- 
lutions. 

4.  The  planets  perform  a diurnal  rotation  round  their  axes. 
This  has  been  ascertained  in  reference  to  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn,  and  we  may  justly  conclude,  from  analogy,  that  the 
same  is  the  case  in  respect  to  all  the  other  planets.  Wherever 
spots  have  been  discovered  on  the  surface  of  any  planet,  it  has 
uniformly  been  found  to  have  a diurnal  rotation.  But  where 
no  spots  or  prominences  have  been  observed,  it  is  obvious  that 
no  such  motion,  though  it  really  exist,  can  be  detected.  No 
spots  have  been  observed  on  the  planet  Mercury,  on  account  of 
its  smallness  and  its  proximity  to  the  sun,  nor  on  the  planet 
Uranus,  on  account  of  its  very  great  distance  from  the  earth; 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  they  have  a diurnal 
motion  as  well  as  the  other  planets.  By  this  motion,  every  part  of 
their  surface  is  turned  in  succession  towards  the  sun,  and  the  alter- 
nate changes  of  day  and  night  are  produced.  Were  no  such  motion 
existing,  one-half  of  these  globes  would  be  entirely  uninhabitable, 
for  the  enlivening  rays  of  the  sun  would  never  cheer  its  desolate 
regions,  and  the  other  half  might  be  dazzled  or  parched  with 
heat,  under  the  perpetual  effulgence  of  the  solar  beams.  Besides, 
the  continuance  of  a perpetual  day,  and  the  illumination  of  the 


350 


NIGHT  SCENES  IN  THE  PLANETS. 


sky  by  an  uninterrupted  efflux  of  solar  light,  would  prevent  the 
distant  regions  of  creation  from  being  seen  and  contemplated,  so 
that  no  body,  except  the  sun  himself,  and  the  planet  on  which 
the  spectator  stood,  would  be  known  to  exist  in  the  universe. 
But  it  appears  to  have  been  the  intention  of  the  Creator,  not 
only  to  cheer  the  planets  by  the  invigorating  influence  of  the 
sun,  but  likewise  to  open  to  the  view  of  their  inhabitants  a 
prospect  into  the  regions  of  distant  worlds,  that  they  may  behold 
a display  of  his  wisdom  and  omnipotence  and  of  the  magnificence 
of  his  empire;  and  this  object  has  been  completely  effected,  in 
every  part  of  the  system,  by  impressing  upon  the  planets  a 
motion  of  rotation,  so  that  there  is  no  body  within  the  range  of 
the  solar  influence  that  does  not,  at  one  period  or  another,  enjoy 
this  advantage.  * 

The  idea  of  night  among  the  celestial  bodies  ought  not  to  be 
associated  with  gloom,  and  darkness,  and  deprivation  of  comforts. 
In  our  world,  this  is  frequently  the  case.  A cloudy  atmosphere, 
combined  with  the  fury  of  raging  winds,  hurricanes,  and  the 
appalling  thunder-storm,  frequently  renders  our  nights  a scene 
of  gloom  and  terror,  especially  to  the  benighted  traveller,  and 
the  mariner  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean.  But  such  gloomy  and 
terrific  scenes  would  never  have  taken  place,  had  our  globe  and 
its  inhabitants  remained  in  that  state  of  order  and  perfection  in 
which  they  were  originally  created:  and  therefore  we  are  to 
consider  such  physical  evils  as  connected  with  the  moral  state  of 
the  present  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  But  even  here,  amidst  the 
gloom  and  darkness  which  frequently  surrounds  us,  night  not 
unfrequently  opens  to  view  a scene  of  incomparable  splendour 
and  magnificence — a scene  which,  were  it  confined  to  one  quarter 
of  the  globe,  millions  of  spectators  would  be  eager  to  travel 
thousands  of  miles  in  order  to  behold  it.  In  a clear  and  serene 
sky,  night  unfolds  to  us  the  firmament  bespangled  with  thou- 
sands of  stars,  twinkling  from  regions  immensely  distant,  and 
the  planets  revolving  in  their  different  circuits,  all  apparently 
moving  around  us  in  silent  grandeur.  When  the  moon  appears 
amidst  the  host  of  stars,  the  scene  is  diversified  and  enlivened. 
Poets  and  philosophers,  in  all  ages,  have  been  charmed  and  cap- 
tivated with  the  mild  radiance  of  a moonlight  scene,  which 
partly  unveils  even  the  distant  landscape,  and  throws  a soft  lustre 
and  solemnity,  both  on  earth  and  sky,  altogether  different  from 
their  aspect  under  the  meridian  sun.  But  we  have  already 
shown  (chapter  viii.)  that  the  splendour  of  the  heavens  during 


PLANETS  OPAQUE  BODIES. 


351 


night,  in  some  of  the  other  planets,  is  far  more  magnificent  and 
diversified  than  what  is  exhibited  in  our  firmament.  The  noc- 
turnal scenes  in  the  heavens  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
their  rings  and  satellites,  in  point  of  sublimity  and  variety, 
exceed  every  conception  we  can  now  form  of  celestial  grandeur 
and  magnificence;  and  therefore  it  is  highly  probable  that,  in 
those  regions,  the  scenes  of  night  will  be  far  more  interesting 
and  sublime,  and  will  afford  objects  of  contemplation  more 
attractive  and  gratifying  than  all  the  splendours  of  their  noon- 
day. In  this  rotation  of  the  planetary  orbs,  there  is  a striking 
display  both  of  wisdom  and  goodness,  in  causing  a mean  so 
apparently  simple  to  be  productive  of  so  rich  a variety  of  sub- 
lime and  beneficent  effects;  and  this  circumstance  of  itself  forms 
a strong  presumptive  evidence,  that  every  globe  in  the  universe 
which  has  such  a rotation  is  either  a world  peopled  with  inhabi- 
tants, or  connected  with  a system  of  habitable  worlds.  For, 
without  such  a motion,  the  one-half,  at  least,  of  every  globe, 
would  be  unfit  for  the  residence  of  organized  intelligences.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  most  if  not  all,  the  globes  of  the  universe 
have  a diurnal  rotation  impressed  upon  them.  We  find  that 
even  the  globe  of  the  sun  has  a motion  of  this  kind,  which  it 
performs  in  the  course  of  twenty-five  days;  and  the  phenomena 
of  variable  stars  have  induced  some  astronomers  to  conclude, 
that  their  alternate  increase  and  diminution  of  lustre  is  owing 
to  a motion  of  rotation  around  their  axes. 

5.  All  the  planets  and  their  satellites  are  opaque  bodies , which 
derive  their  lustre  from  the  sun.  That  Venus  and  Mercury  are 
opaque  globes,  which  have  no  light  in  themselves,  is  evident 
from  their  appearing  sometimes  with  a gibbous  phase,  and  at 
other  times  like  a crescent,  or  a half  moon;  and  particularly 
from  their  having  been  seen  moving  across  the  disk  of  the  sun, 
like  round  black  spots.  Mars,  being  a superior  planet,  can 
never  appear  like  a crescent,  or  a half  moon;  but  at  the  time  of 
its  quadrature  with  the  sun,  it  assumes  a gibbous  phase,  some- 
what approaching  to  that  of  a half  moon,  which  likewise  proves 
that  it  is  an  opaque  globe.  Jupiter  and  Saturn  must  always 
appear  round,  on  account  of  their  great  distance  from  the  earth; 
but  that  Jupiter  is  opaque,  appears  from  the  dark  shadows  of 
his  satellites  moving  across  his  disk,  when  they  interpose 
between  him  and  the  sun;  and  that  Saturn  is  likewise  a dark 
body  of  itself,  appears  from  the  shadow  of  the  rings  upon  its 
disk.  That  the  moon  is  an  opaque  body  has  been  already  shown. 


352 


SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENTS 


(p.  231,)  and  it  is  obvious  to  almost  every  observer;  and  that 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are  opaque,  appears  from 
their  eclipses,  and  the  shadows  they  project  on  their  respective 
planets.  In  this  respect,  both  the  primary  and  the  secondary 
planets  are  bodies  analogous  to  the  earth,  which  is  likewise 
opaque,  and  derives  all  its  light  either  directly  from  the  sun,  or 
by  reflection  from  the  moon,  except  the  few  feeble  rays  which 
proceed  from  the  stars.  It  forms,  therefore,  a presumptive 
argument  that  all  these  bodies  have  a similar  destination.  For 
we  cannot  conceive  any  other  globe  so  well  fitted  for  the  habita- 
tion of  rational  beings  as  that  which  is  illuminated  by  light  pro- 
ceeding from  another  body.  An  inherent  splendour  on  the  sur- 
face of  any  globe  would  dazzle  the  eyes  with  its  brilliancy,  and 
could  never  produce  such  a beautiful  diversity  of  form,  shade, 
and  colouring,  as  appears  on  the  landscapes  of  the  earth,  by 
means  of  the  reflections  of  the  solar  rays.  And  therefore,  if  the 
sun  be  inhabited,  it  can  only  be  its  dark  central  nucleus,  and  not 
the  exterior  surface  of  its  luminous  atmosphere. 

6.  The  bodies  belonging  to  the  planetary  system  are  all  col - 
lected  together  by  one  common  principle , or  law — namely,  the 
law  of  gravitation.  They  are  all  subject  to  the  attractive  in- 
fluence of  the  great  central  luminary;  they  revolve  around  it,  in 
conformity  to  the  general  law — that  the  squares  of  their  period- 
ical times  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  distances — they 
describe  equal  areas  in  equal  times — their  orbits  are  elliptical — 
they  are  acted  upon  by  centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces — and 
they  all  produce  an  attractive  influence  on  each  other,  according 
to  their  distances  and  the  quantity  of  matter  they  contain. 
Being  thus  assimilated  and  combined  into  one  harmonious  system, 
the  presumption  is,  that,  however  different  in  point  of  distance, 
magnitude,  and  density,  they  are  all  intended  to  accomplish  the 
same  grand  and  beneficent  design — namely,  to  serve  as  the 
abodes  of  living  beings,  and  to  promote  the  enjoyment  of  intel- 
lectual natures. 

Since  the  planets,  then,  are  all  similar  to  one  another,  in  their 
spherical  or  spheroidal  figures — in  their  being  solid  and  opaque 
globes — in  their  annual  and  diurnal  revolutions — and  in  being 
acted  upon  by  the  same  laws  of  motion — and  since  these  circum- 
stances are  all  requisite  to  the  comfort  and  enjoyment  of  living 
beings — it  is  a natural  and  reasonable  conclusion,  that  their 
ultimate  destination  is  the  same,  and  that  they  are  all  replenished 
with  inhabitants.  This  earth  on  which  we  dwell  is  one  of  the 


IN  THE  PLANETS. 


353 


bodies  possessed  of  the  qualities  and  arrangements  to  which  we 
allude;  and  we  know  that  its  chief  and  ultimate  design  is,  to 
support  a multitude  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings,  and  to 
afford  them  both  physical  and  mental  enjoyment.  Had  not  this 
been  its  principal  destination,  we  are  assured,  on  the  authority 
of  Divine  revelation,  that  “ it  would  have  been  created  in  vain  ” 

We  must  therefore  conclude,  that  all  the  other  globes  in  our 
system  were  destined  to  a similar  end,  unless  we  can  suppose  it 
to  be  consistent  with  the  perfections  of  Deity  that  they  were 
created  for  no  purpose. 

section  in. 

Argument  III.  In  the  bodies  which  constitute  the  solar  system , 
there  are  special  arrangements  which  indicate  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  enjoyment  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings ; and  which 
prove  that  this  ivas  the  ultimate  design  of  their  creation . This 
argument  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  former;  but  it  may  be  con- 
sidered separately,  in  order  to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  too 
many  particulars  under  one  head. 

1.  The  surfaces  of  the  planets  are  diversified  with  hills  and 
valleys , and  a variety  of  mountain  scenery . This  is  particularly 
observable  in  the  moon,  whose  surface  is  diversified  with  an 
immense  variety  of  elevations  and  depressions,  though  in  a form 
and  arrangement  very  different  from  ours  (see  pp.  235 — 240.) 
It  cannot  be  ascertained,  by  direct  observation,  that  there  are 
mountains  on  the  surfaces  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  or  Uranus,  by 
reason  of  their  great  distances  from  the  earth.  But  that  they 
are  rough  or  uneven  globes,  appears  from  their  reflecting  the 
light  to  us  from  every  part  of  their  surfaces,  and  from  the  spots 
and  differences  of  shade  and  colour  which  are  sometimes  distin- 
guishable on  their  disks.  For  if  the  surfaces  of  the  planets 
were  perfectly  smooth  and  polished,  they  could  not  reflect  the 
light  in  every  direction ; the  reflected  image  of  the  sun  would 
be  too  small  to  strike  our  eyes,  and  they  would  consequently  be 
invisible.  (See  p.  231.)  Indications  of  mountains,  however, 
have  been  seen  on  some  of  the  other  planets,  particularly  on 
Yenus.  Spots  have  been  observed  on  this  planet,  on  different 
occasions,  and  the  boundary  between  its  dark  and  enlightened 
hemisphere  has  appeared  jagged  or  uneven — a clear  proof  that 
its  surface  is  diversified  with  mountains  and  vales.  One  of 
these  mountains  was  calculated  by  Schroeter  to  be  nearly  eleven, 

A A 


354 


MOUNTAINS  IN  THE  PLANETS. 


and  another  twenty-two  miles  in  perpendicular  elevation;  and 
there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  such  inequalities  are  to  be 
found  on  the  surfaces  of  all  the  planets  and  their  satellites, 
although  they  are  not  distinctly  visible  to  us,  on  account  of  their 
distance. 

The  existence  of  mountains  on  the  planets  is  therefore  a 
proof,  or,  at  least,  a strong  presumptive  evidence,  that  they  are 
habitable  worlds;  for  a perfectly  smooth  globe  could  present  no 
great  variety  of  objects  nor  picturesque  scenery,  such  as  we 
behold  in  our  world,  and  would  doubtless  be  attended  with  many 
inconveniences.  The  view  from  any  point  of  such  a globe 
would  be  dull  and  monotonous  like  the  expanse  of  the  ocean,  or 
like  the  deserts  of  Zahara  or  Arabia.  It  is  the  beautiful  variety 
of  hills  and  dales,  mountains  and  plains,  and  their  diversity  of 
shadows  and  aspects,  that  render  the  landscapes  of  the  earth 
interesting  and  delightful  to  the  painter,  the  poet,  the  man  of 
taste,  and  the  traveller.  Who  would  ever  desire  to  visit  distant 
countries,  or  even  distant  worlds,  if  they  consisted  merely  of 
level  plains,  without  any  variety,  of  several  thousands  of  miles 
in  extent?  The  mountains  add  both  to  the  sublimity  and  the 
beauty  of  the  surface  of  our  globe;  and  from  the  summits  of 
lofty  ranges,  the  most  enchanting  prospects  are  frequently  en- 
joyed of  the  rivers  and  lakes,  the  hills  and  vales,  which  diversify 
the  plains  below.  But  besides  the  beauty  and  variety  which 
the  diversity  of  surface  produces,  mountains  are  of  essential  use 
in  the  economy  of  our  globe.  They  afford  many  of  the  most 
delightful  and  salubrious  places  for  the  habitations  of  man;  they 
arrest  the  progress  of  stormy  winds;  they  serve  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  animals  and  the  production  of  an  infinite  variety  of 
herbs  and  trees;  they  are  the  depositories  of  stones,  metals, 
minerals,  and  fossils,  of  every  description,  so  necessary  for  the  use 
of  man;  and  they  are  the  portions  of  the  globe  where  fountains 
have  their  rise,  and  whence  rivers  are  conveyed  to  enliven  and 
fertilize  the  plains.  For,  if  the  earth  were  divested  of  its  moun- 
tains, and  every  part  of  its  surface  a dead  level,  there  could  be 
no  running  streams  nor  conveyance  for  the  waters,  and  they 
would  either  stagnate  in  large  masses,  or  overflow  immense  tracts 
of  land.  Hence  it  has  been  arranged  by  the  wisdom  of  Provi- 
dence, that  mountains  should  exist  over  all  the  globe,  and  that 
every  country  should  enjoy  the  numerous  benefits  which  such 
an  arrangement  is  fitted  to  produce. 

As  mountains,  then,  are  part  of  the  arrangements  of  other 


UTILITY  OF  MOUNTAINS. 


355 


globes  in  the  solar  system,  and  as  they  are  essentially  requisite 
in  such  a world  as  ours,  they  may  serve  similar,  and  even  more 
important,  purposes  in  other  worlds.  In  some  of  the  planets 
they  appear  to  be  more  elevated  and  of  greater  dimensions  than 
on  the  earth.  Although  the  moon  is  much  less  in  size  than  our 
globe,  yet  some  of  its  mountains  are  reckoned  to  be  five  miles  in 
perpendicular  height.  Some  of  the  mountains  on  Venus  are 
estimated  to  be  four  times  higher  than  even  this  elevation.  We 
may  easily  conceive  what  an  extensive  and  magnificent  prospect 
would  be  presented  from  the  top  of  such  sublime  elevations,  and 
what  a diversity  of  objects  would  be  presented  to  the  eye  from 
one  point  of  view.  Nor  need  we  imagine  there  will  be  any 
great  difficulty  in  ascending  such  lofty  eminences;  for  the  inha- 
bitants of  such  worlds  may  be  furnished  with  bodies  different 
from  those  of  the  human  race,  and  endowed  with  locomotive 
powers  far  superior  to  ours.  If,  therefore,  the  planets  were  found 
to  be  perfectly  smooth  globes,  without  any  elevations  or 
depressions,  we  should  lose  one  argument  in  support  of  their 
being  designed  for  the  abodes  of  rational  beings;  but  having  the 
characteristic  now  stated,  when  taken  into  consideration  with 
other  arrangements,  it  corroborates  the  idea  of  their  being  habi- 
table worlds. 

2.  The  planets,  in  all  probability,  are  environed  with  atmo- 
spheres. It  appears  pretty  certain  that  the  moon  is  surrounded 
with  such  an  appendage,  (see  pp.  249 — 251.)  The  planet  Mars 
is  admitted  by  all  astronomers  to  be  environed  with  a pretty 
dense  atmosphere,  which  is  the  cause  of  its  ruddy  appearance, 
(see  pp.  119 — 120;)  and  indications  of  an  atmosphere  have  been 
observed  on  Venus,  and  some  of  the  other  planets.  To  our 
world  an  atmosphere  is  a most  essential  appendage.  Without 
its  agency,  our  globe  would  be  unfit  for  being  the  residence  of 
living  beings,  constituted  as  they  now  are;  and  were  it  detached 
from  the  earth,  all  the  orders  of  animated  nature,  and  even  the 
vegetable  tribes,  would  soon  cease  to  exist.  Atmospheres,  some- 
what analogous  to  ours,  may  likewise  be  necessary  in  other 
worlds.  But  we  have  no  reason  to  conclude  that  they  are  exactly 
similar  to  ours.  While  our  atmosphere  consists  of  a compound 
of  several  gaseous  substances,  theirs  may  be  formed  of  a pure 
homogeneous  ethereal  fluid,  possessed  of  very  different  proper- 
ties. While  ours  is  impregnated  with  dense  vapours,  and  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  strata  of  thick  clouds,  the  atmospheres 
of  some  of  the  other  planets  may  be  free  of  every  heterogeneous 

A A 2 


356 


ATMOSPHERE  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


substance,  and  perfectly  pure  and  transparent.  Their  reflective 
and  refractive  powers,  and  other  qualities  may  likewise  be  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the  earth. 
Hence  the  folly  of  denying  the  existence  of  an  atmosphere  around 
the  moon,  or  any  other  planet,  because  a fixed  star,  or  any  other 
orb,  is  not  rendered  dim  or  distorted  when  it  approaches  its 
margin.  For  if  its  atmosphere  be  either  of  small  dimensions,  or 
perfectly  pure  and  transparent,  or  of  a different  refractive  power 
from  ours,  such  a phenomenon  cannot  be  expected.  We  have 
no  more  reason  to  expect  that  the  atmospheres  of  other  planets 
should  be  similar  to  ours,  than  that  these  bodies  should  be  of  the 
same  size,  have  the  same  diversity  of  objects  on  their  surface,  or 
be  accompanied  with  the  same  number  of  moons. 

It  is  not  likely  that  our  atmosphere  is  precisely  in  the  same 
state  as  at  the  first  creation.  Its  invigorating  powers  had  then 
an  influence  sufficient  to  prolong  human  existence  to  a period  of 
a thousand  years;  but  since  the  change  it  underwent  at  the 
deluge,  the  period  of  human  life  has  dwindled  down  to  little 
more  than  “ threescore  years  and  ten.”  The  present  constitution 
of  our  atmosphere,  therefore,  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  a 
model  by  which  to  judge  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the 
atmospheres  of  other  worlds.  Their  atmospheres  may  be  so  pure 
and  transparent  as  to  enable  their  inhabitants  to  penetrate  much 
further  into  space  than  we  can  do,  and  to  present  to  them  the 
heavenly  bodies  with  more  brilliancy  and  lustre;  and  the  pro- 
perties with  which  they  are  endowed  may  be  fitted  to  preserve 
their  corporeal  organs  in  undecaying  vigour,  and  to  raise  their 
spirits  to  the  highest  pitch  of  ecstasy,  similar  to  some  of  the 
effects  produced  on  our  frame  by  inhaling  that  gaseous  fluid 
called  the  nitrous  oxide . There  is  only  one  planet  whose 
atmosphere  appears  to  partake  of  the  impurity  and  density  of 
that  of  the  earth,  and  that  is  the  planet  Mars,  and  several 
other  circumstances  tend  to  show  that  it  bears  a too  near  resem- 
blance to  our  globe.  In  this  respect,  then,  it  gives  indication  of 
being  a habitable  world;  but  several  of  the  other  planets  may 
be  abodes  of  greater  happiness  and  splendour,  although  no  traces 
of  such  an  appendage  can  be  distinguished  by  our  telescopes. 
And  this  very  circumstance,  that  their  atmospheres  are  invisible, 
should  lead  us  to  conclude  that  they  are  purer  and  more  trans- 
parent than  ours,  and  that  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of 
their  inhabitants  is  probably  superior  to  what  is  enjoyed  upon 
earth. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  LIGHT  AND  HEAT. 


357 


3.  There  is  provision  made  for  the  distribution  of  light , and 
heat , and  colour , among  all  the  planets  and  their  satellites.  On 
every  one  of  these  bodies  the  sun  diffuses  a radiance,  and,  in 
order  that  no  portion  of  their  surfaces  may  be  deprived  of  this 
influence,  they  appear  all  to  have  a motion  round  their  axes. 
Light  is  an  essential  requisite  to  every  world,  and  colour  is 
almost  equally  indispensable.  Without  colour,  we  should  be 
unable  to  perceive  the  forms,  proportions,  and  aspects  of  the 
objects  which  surround  us;  we  could  not  distinguish  one  object 
from  another;  all  the  beauties,  varieties,  and  sublimities  of 
nature  would  be  annihilated,  and  we  should  remain  destitute  of 
the  noblest  entertainments  of  vision.  It  is  colour  which  enlivens 
every  scene  of  nature,  which  adds  a charm  to  every  landscape, 
and  gives  an  air  of  beauty  and  magnificence  to  the  spacious  vault 
of  heaven.  Now,  colour  exists  in  the  solar  rays,  without  which, 
or  some  similar  radiance,  every  object  is  either  invisible  or  wears 
a uniform  aspect.  On  whatever  objects  these  rays  fall,  colour  is 
produced;  they  have  the  same  properties  in  every  part  of  the 
system  as  on  our  globe,  and  therefore  must  produce  colours  of 
various  hues  on  the  objects  connected  with  the  remotest  planets, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  substances  on  which  they  fall. 
Light  and  colour,  then,  being  essential  to  every  globe  intended 
for  the  habitation  of  living  beings,  abundant  provision  has  been 
made  for  diffusing  their  benign  influence  through  every  part  of 
the  planetary  system.  Heat  is  likewise  an  agent  which  appears 
necessary  to  every  world;  and  it  is,  doubtless,  distributed  in  due 
proportions  throughout  the  system,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  substances  of  which  the  planets  are  composed,  and  the  con- 
stitution of  their  inhabitants.  But  light,  and  colour,  and  heat, 
are  agencies  which  can  only  have  an  ultimate  respect  to  sensitive 
and  intellectual  beings;  and  therefore  where  no  such  beings  exist, 
or  are  intended  to  exist,  no  such  provision  would  be  made  by  a 
wise  and  intelligent  agent.  Such  care  as  appears  to  have  been 
taken  for  the  communication  of  the  agencies  of  light,  heat,  and 
colour,  would  never  have  been  exercised  for  the  sake  of  rocks 
and  deserts,  and  scenes  of  sterility  and  desolation.  The  existence 
of  light , with  all  the  enchanting  effects  it  produces,  necessarily 
supposes  the  existence  of  eyes , in  order  to  enjoy  its  beneficial 
influence;  and  therefore,  organized  beings,  endowed  with  visual 
organs , must  exist  in  all  those  regions  where  contrivances  have 
been  adapted  for  its  regular  and  universal  diffusion;  otherwise, 
the  universe  might  have  remained  a scene  of  eternal  darkness. 


358 


SATELLITES  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


4.  The  principal  primary  planets  are  provided  with  secondary 
planets , or  moons , to  afford  them  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun, 
as  well  as  to  accomplish  other  important  purposes.  The  three 
largest  planets  of  the  system  are  accommodated  with  no  fewer 
than  seventeen  of  those  nocturnal  luminaries,  and  probably  with 
several  more  which  lie  beyond  the  reach  of  our  telescopes.  Our 
earth  has  one;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  both  Mars  and  Venus 
are  attended  by  at  least  one  satellite.  These  attendants  appear 
to  increase  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  primary 
planet  from  the  sun.  Jupiter  has  four  such  attendants;  Saturn, 
seven;  six  have  been  discovered  around  Uranus;  but  the  great 
difficulty  of  perceiving  them,  at  the  immense  distance  at  which 
we  are  placed,  leads  to  the  almost  certain  conclusion,  that  several 
more  exist  which  have  not  yet  been  detected.  While  these 
satellites  revolve  round  their  respective  planets,  and  diffuse  a 
mild  radiance  on  their  surfaces  in  the  absence  of  the  sun,  they 
also  serve  the  same  purposes  to  one  another;  and  their  primaries, 
at  the  same  time,  serve  the  purpose  of  large  resplendent  moons 
to  every  one  of  their  satellites,  besides  presenting  a diversified 
and  magnificent  scene  in  their  nocturnal  sky.  No  satellite  has 
yet  been  discovered  attending  the  planet  Mercury,  nor  is  it  pro- 
bable that  any  such  body  exists.  But  we  have  already  shown 
(pp.  310 — 31 1)  that  Venus  and  the  earth  serve  the  purposes  of 
satellites  to  this  planet, — Venus  sometimes  appearing  six  times 
as  large  and  the  earth  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  Venus  does 
to  us  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  brilliancy;  so  that  the  nights 
of  Mercury  are  cheered  with  a considerable  degree  of  illumina- 
tion. Here,  then,  we  perceive  an  evident  design  in  such  arrange- 
ments, which  can  have  no  other  ultimate  object  in  view  than 
the  comfort  and  gratification  of  intelligent  beings.  For  a retinue 
of  moons,  revolving  around  their  primary  planets  at  regular  dis- 
tances, and  in  fixed  periods  of  time,  would  serve  no  useful 
purpose  in  throwing  a faint  light  on  immense  deserts,  where  no 
sensitive  beings,  furnished  with  visual  organs,  were  placed  to 
enjoy  its  benefits;  nor,  if  this  were  the  case,  is  it  supposable 
that  so  much  skill  and  accuracy  would  have  been  displayed  in 
arranging  their  distances  and  their  periodical  revolutions,  which 
is  accomplished  with  all  the  accuracy  and  precision  which  are 
displayed  in  the  other  departments  of  the  system  of  nature. 

5.  The  small  density  of  the  larger  and  more  remote  planets, 
and  the  diminution  of  the  weight  of  bodies  on  their  surfaces , on 
this  account  and  by  their  rapid  rotation  on  their  axes  appear  to 


DENSITY  OF  THE  PLANETS. 


359 


be  instances  of  design  which  have  a respect  to  sentient  beings. 
The  density  of  J upiter  is  little  more  than  that  of  water,  and  of 
Saturn  about  the  density  of  cork.  Were  these  planets  as  dense 
as  the  planet  Mercury,  or  had  they  even  the  density  of  the  earth, 
organized  beings  like  man  would  be  unable  to  traverse  their 
surfaces.  If  the  density  of  Jupiter,  for  example,  were  as  great 
as  that  of  the  earth,  the  weight  of  bodies  on  its  surface  would 
be  eleven  times  greater  than  with  us;  so  that  a man  weighing 
160  pounds  on  the  earth  would  be  pressed  down,  on  the  surface 
of  J upiter,  with  a force  equal  to  one  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  sixty  pounds.  But  the  gravity  of  bodies  on  the  surface  of 
this  planet  is  only  about  twice  as  great  as  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth;  and  this  gravitating  poiver  is  diminished  by  its  rapid 
rotation  on  its  axis . For,  the  centrifugal  force,  which  diminishes 
the  weight  of  bodies,  is  sixty -six  times  greater  on  Jupiter  than 
on  the  earth,  and  will  relieve  the  inhabitants  of  one-eiglith  part 
of  their  weight,  which  they  would  otherwise  feel  if  there  were 
no  rotation;  so  that  a body  weighing  128  pounds,  if  the  planet 
stood  still,  would  weigh  only  112  pounds  at  its  present  rate  of 
rotation,  which  will  afford  a sensible  relief  and  diminution  of 
weight,  (see  p.  151,  Art.  Jupiter .)  The  same  may  be  said,  with 
some  slight  modifications,  in  relation  to  Saturn.  There  must, 
therefore,  have  been  a design , or  a wise  and  prospective  con- 
trivance, in  such  arrangements,  to  suit  the  exigencies  and  to 
promote  the  comfort  of  organized  intelligences:  otherwise,  had 
Jupiter  or  Saturn  been  as  much  denser  than  the  earth  as  they 
are  lighter,  everybody  would  have  been  riveted  to  their  surfaces 
with  a force  which  beings  like  man  could  never  have  overcome; 
and  moving  beings  with  such  organical  parts  as  those  of  men 
would  have  had  to  drag  along  with  them  a weight  of  eight  or 
ten  thousand  pounds.  

In  the  preceding  statements  I have  endeavoured  to  show,  that 
there  is  a general  similarity  among  all  the  bodies  of  the  planetary 
system,  and  that  there  are  special  arrangements  which  indicate 
their  adaptation  to  the  enjoyment  of  sensitive  and  intellectual 
beings.  Let  us  now  consider  more  particularly  the  force  of  the 
argument  derived  from  such  considerations: — 

That  the  Divine  Being  has  an  end  in  view  in  all  his  arrange- 
ments, and  that  this  end  is  in  complete  correspondence  with  his 
infinite  wisdom  and  goodness,  and  the  other  perfections  of  his 
nature,  is  a position  which  every  rational  Theist  will  readily 


360 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  ARGUMENT. 


admit.  That  some  of  the  prominent  designs,  or  general  ends, 
which  the  Deity  intended  to  accomplish,  may  be  traced  in  various 
departments  of  his  works,  is  likewise  a position  which  few  or 
none  will  deny.  That  design  may  be  inferred  from  its  effects 
is  a principle  which  mankind  generally  recognise  in  their  inves- 
tigations of  the  operations  both  of  nature  and  of  art.  That  man 
would  justly  be  accused  of  insanity,  who,  after  inspecting  the 
machinery  of  a well-constructed  clock,  and  perceiving  that  it 
answered  the  purpose  of  pointing  out  the  divisions  of  time  by 
hours,  minutes,  and  seconds,  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  should 
deny  that  its  various  parts  were  formed  and  arranged  for  the 
very  purpose  which  the  machine  so  exactly  fulfils;  at  least, 
that  the  pointing  out  of  the  hours  and  minutes  was  one  of  the 
main  and  leading  objects  which  the  artist  had  in  view  in  its 
construction.  It  is  a law  of  our  nature,  which  we  cannot  resist, 
that  from  the  effect  the  design  may  be  inferred;  and  that  wher- 
ever art  or  contrivance  appears  exactly  adapted  to  accomplish  a 
certain  end,  that  end  was  intended  to  be  accomplished.  We 
cannot  doubt,  for  a moment,  of  the  final  causes  of  a variety  of 
objects  and  contrivances  which  present  themselves  to  view  in 
the  world  we  inhabit.  We  cannot  err  in  concluding,  for  example, 
that  the  ears,  legs,  and  wings  of  animals  were  made  for  the 
purpose  of  hearing,  walking,  and  flying.  On  the  same  principle 
we  are  led  to  conclude,  that  as  animals  are  formed  with  mouths, 
teeth,  and  stomachs,  to  masticate  and  digest  their  food,  so  vege- 
tables and  other  organized  bodies  were  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  that  nourishment  which  the  animal  requires.  No 
one  will  take  upon  him  to  deny  that  the  eye  was  intended  for  the 
purpose  of  vision.  The  coats  and  humours  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, and  the  muscles  which  move  it  in  every  direction,  in 
their  size,  shape,  connexion,  and  positions,  are  so  admirably 
adapted  to  this  end,  and  the  transparency  of  the  cornea  and  the 
humours , the  opacity  of  the  uvea , and  the  semi-opacity  and  con- 
cavity of  the  retina  are  so  necessary  to  transmit  and  refract  the 
rays  of  light  in  order  to  distinct  vision,  that  it  appears  as  evident 
it  was  designed  for  this  purpose,  as  that  telescopes  were  con- 
structed to  discover  the  colours,  shapes,  and  motions  of  distant 
objects.  And  as  the  eye  was  constructed  of  a number  of  nice 
and  delicate  parts  for  the  purpose  of  vision,  so  light  was  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  acting  upon  it  and  producing  the  intended 
effect,  without  the  agency  of  which  vision  could  not  be  produced. 
The  one  is  exactly  adapted  to  the  other;  for  no  other  substance 


EVIDENCES  OF  DESIGN  IN  CREATION. 


361 


but  light  can  affect  the  eye  so  as  to  produce  vision,  and  no  other 
organ  of  sensation  is  susceptible  of  the  impressions  of  light,  so 
as  to  convey  a perception  of  any  visible  object.  In  all  such 
cases,  the  adaptation  of  one  contrivance  to  another,  and  the 
intention  of  the  Contriver,  are  quite  apparent. 

It  is  true,  indeed,  that  we  cannot  pretend  to  explore  all  the 
ends  or  designs  which  God  may  have  had  in  view  in  the  forma- 
tion of  any  one  object,  or  department  of  the  universe.  For  an 
eternal  and  omniscient  Bbing,  whose  wisdom  is  unsearchable, 
and  whose  eye  penetrates  through  all  the  regions  of  immensity, 
may  have  subordinate  designs  to  accomplish,  which  surpass  the 
limited  faculties  of  man,  or  even  of  angels,  to  comprehend.  But 
to  investigate  and  to  perceive  some  of  the  main  and  leading  ends 
which  were  designed  in  the  arrangement  of  certain  parts  of  the 
universe,  is  so  far  from  being  presumptuous  and  unattainable, 
that  it  would  be  blindness  and  folly  in  a rational  creature  not 
to  discover  them;  particularly  in  such  instances  as  those  to 
which  we  have  now  alluded.  For  it  appears  to  be  the  intention  of 
the  Deity,  in  displaying  his  works  to  intelligent  minds,  that  these 
works  shall  exhibit  a manifestation  of  his  attributes,  and  parti- 
cularly of  his  wisdom,  goodness,  and  intelligence;  and  he  has  en- 
dowed them  with  faculties  adequate  to  enable  them  to  perceive 
some  traces  of  his  footsteps,  and  of  the  plan  of  his  operations. 
But  while  he  permits  us  to  perceive  some  of  the  grand  lineaments 
of  his  designs,  there  may  be  numberless  minute  and  subordinate 
ends  which  lie  beyond  the  sphere  of  our  investigations.  Were 
a peasant  brought  into  the  observatory  of  an  astronomer,  and 
shown  an  instrument  calculated  to  point  out  the  sun’s  place  in 
the  ecliptic,  its  declination  and  right  ascension,  the  day  of  the 
month,  &c.,  and  particularly  the  hour  of  the  day,  it  would  be 
presumptuous  in  such  a person  to  pretend  to  ascertain  all  the 
intentions  of  the  artist,  or  all  the  uses  for  which  such  a machine 
was  constructed;  but  when  he  beheld  the  ordinary  marks  of  the 
sun-dial,  and  the  shadow  of  the  gnomon  accurately  pointing  to 
the  hour,  he  could  not  fail  at  once  to  perceive  that  this  was  one 
principal  end  which  the  contriver  had  in  view.  In  like  manner, 
while  we  evidently  perceive  that  one  principal  design  of  the 
creation  of  the  sun  was  to  enlighten  the  earth  and  other  bodies 
which  move  around  it,  it  also  serves  several  subordinate  pur- 
poses. It  directs  the  course  of  winds,  promotes  evaporation, 
and  the  growth  of  vegetables;  it  retains  the  planets  in  their 
orbits;  it  kindles  combustible  substances  by  means  of  convex 


362 


DESIGNS  OF  THE  DEITY  IN  CREATION. 


glasses  and  concave  mirrors;  it  enables  us  to  measure  time  by 
means  of  dials;  it  directs  the  geographer  to  determine  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  pole  and  the  latitude  of  places;  it  guides  the  navi- 
gator in  his  course  through  the  ocean,  and  even  its  eclipses  serve 
many  useful  purposes,  both  in  chronology  and  astronomy;  and 
it  may  serve  similar  or  very  different  purposes,  with  which  we 
are  unacquainted,  among  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds.  All 
these  purposes,  and  many  more,  of  which  we  are  ignorant,  may 
have  entered  into  the  designs  of  the  Almighty  Creator,  although, 
in  the  first  instance,  we  might  have  been  unable  to  discover  or 
appreciate  them.  As  “the  works  of  the  Lord  are  great,”  so 
they  must  “ be  sought  out,”  or  diligently  investigated,  in  order 
that  we  may  clearly  perceive  the  manifold  designs  of  infinite 
wisdom. 

Let  us  now  apply  these  principles  to  the  subject  more  imme- 
diately before  us.  We  have  seen  that,  in  the  distant  bodies  of 
our  system,  there  are  special  contrivances  and  arrangements,  all 
calculated  to  promote  the  enjoyment  of  myriads  of  intelligent 
agents.  We  have  presented  before  us  a most  august  and  asto- 
nishing assemblage  of  means ; and  if  the  Contriver  of  the  universe 
is  possessed  of  wisdom,  there  must  be  an  end  proportionate  to 
the  utility  and  grandeur  of  the  means  provided.  Arrangements 
nearly  similar,  but  much  inferior  in  point  of  extent  and  magni- 
ficence, have  been  made  in  relation  to  the  globe  on  which  we 
live.  We  know  the  final  cause,  or,  at  least,  one  of  the  principal 
designs  for  which  it  was  created,  namely,  to  support  sensitive 
and  intellectual  beings,  and  to  contribute  to  their  enjoyment.  If, 
then,  the  Creator  acts  on  the  same  principles — in  other  words, 
if  he  displays  the  same  intelligence — in  other  regions  of  the 
universe  as  he  does  in  our  globe,  we  must  admit  that  the  plane- 
tary globes  are  furnished  with  rational  inhabitants.  There  is 
one  essential  attribute  which  enters  into  all  our  conceptions  of 
the  Divine  being,  namely,  that  lie  is  possessed  of  infinite  wisdom . 
This  perfection  of  his  nature  is  displayed  in  all  the  general 
arrangements  he  has  made  in  this  lower  world,  where  we  find  one 
part  nicely  adapted  to  another,  and  everything  so  balanced  and 
arranged  as  to  promote  the  comfort  of  sentient  beings.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  being  possessed  of  this  perfection,  he  must  be 
considered,  in  all  his  operations,  throughout  the  immensity  of 
space,  as  proportionating  the  means  to  the  end,  and  selecting  the 
best  means  possible  for  the  accomplishment  of  any  design;  for 
in  such  contrivances  and  operations  true  wisdom  consists. 


WISDOM  OF  THE  CREATOR  CONSIDERED. 


363 


But  now,  let  us  suppose  for  a moment  that  the  vast  regions 
on  the  surfaces  of  the  planets  are  only  immense  and  frightful 
deserts,  devoid  of  inhabitants;  wherein  does  the  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  appear , on  this  supposition  ? For  what  purpose  serves 
the  grand  apparatus  of  rings  and  moons  for  adorning  their  sky 
and  reflecting  light  on  their  hemispheres?  Why  are  they  made 
to  perform  annual  and  diurnal  revolutions,  and  not  fixed  in  the 
same  points  of  infinite  space?  Why  are  the  larger  and  remoter 
planets  furnished  with  more  moons  than  those  which  are  nearer 
the  source  of  light?  Why  are  their  firmaments  diversified  with 
so  many  splendid  and  magnificent  objects?  Why  is  their  surface 
arranged  into  mountains  and  vales?  Why  has  so  much  contri- 
vance been  displayed  in  devising  means  for  the  illumination  of 
every  portion  of  their  surfaces,  and  diffusing  over  them  a variety 
of  colours?  The  answer  to  such  questions  would,  then,  be,  to 
illuminate  an  immense  number  of  dreary  wastes,  and  to  produce 
days  and  nights,  and  a variety  of  seasons,  for  the  sole  benefit  of 
interminable  deserts,  or,  at  most,  of  mountains  of  marble,  or 
rocks  of  diamonds — to  afford  them  light  enough  to  see  to  keep 
their  orbits,  lest  they  might  miss  their  way  in  the  pathless  spaces 
through  which  they  move!  Is  such  an  apparatus  requisite  for 
such  a purpose?  Would  this  he  an  end  worthy  of  infinite 
wisdom?  Would  it  at  all  correspond  with  the  dignity  and 
grandeur  of  the  means  employed?  Would  it  comport  with  the 
boundless  intelligence  of  Him  “ who  formed  the  earth  by  his 
wisdom,  and  stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  understanding V 
To  maintain  such  a position  would  be  to  distort  the  Divine 
character,  and  to  undermine  all  the  conceptions  we  ought  to 
form  of  the  Deity,  as  wise,  amiable,  and  adorable,  and  as  “ great 
in  counsel  and  mighty  in  operation.”  If  we  beheld  an  artist 
exerting  his  whole  energies,  and  spending  his  whole  life,  in  con- 
structing a large  complex  machine  which  produced  merely  a 
successive  revolution  of  wheels  and  pinions,  without  any  useful 
end  whatever  in  view,  however  much  we  might  extol  the  inge- 
nuity displayed  in  some  parts  of  the  machine,  we  could  not  help 
viewing  him  as  a fool,  or  a maniac,  in  bestowing  so  much  labour 
and  expense  to  no  purpose.  For  it  is  the  end , or  design  intended, 
which  leads  us  to  infer  the  wisdom  of  the  artist  in  the  means 
employed.  And  shall  we  consider  the  all- wise  and  adorable 
creator  of  the  universe  as  acting  in  a similar  manner?  The 
thought  would  be  impious,  blasphemous,  and  absurd.  It  is  only 
when  we  recognise  the  Almighty  as  displaying  infinite  wisdom 


364 


ARGUMENT  FROM 


in  all  his  arrangements  throughout  creation,  and  boundless  bene- 
ficence, in  diffusing  happiness  among  countless  ranks  of  intel- 
ligent existence,  that  we  perceive  him  to  be  worthy  of  our  admi- 
ration and  gratitude,  and  of  our  highest  praises  and  adorations. 

We  are,  therefore,  irresistibly  led  to  the  conclusion,  that  the 
planets  are  the  abodes  of  intelligent  beings,  since  every  requisite 
arrangement  has  been  made  for  their  enjoyment.  This  is  a con- 
clusion which  is  not  merely  probable,  but  absolutely  certain; 
for  the  opposite  opinion  would  rob  the  Deity  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguishing attribute  of  his  nature,  by  virtually  denying  him  the 
perfection  of  infinite  wisdom  and  intelligence. 

SECTION  IV. 

Argument  IY.  The  scenery  of  the  heavens,  as  viewed  from 
the  surfaces  of  the  larger  planets  and  their  satellites,  forms  a 
presumptive  proof  that  both  the  planets  and  their  moons  are 
inhabited  by  intellectual  beings. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  I have  described,  at  some  length, 
the  celestial  phenomena  of  the  planets,  both  primary  and 
secondary.  From  these  descriptions  it  appears  that  the  most 
glorious  and  magnificent  scenes  are  displayed  in  the  firmaments 
of  the  remoter  planets,  and  particularly  in  those  of  their  satellites. 
Even  the  firmament  of  the  moon  is  more  striking  and  sublime 
than  ours.  But  in  the  firmaments  of  some  of  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  there  are  celestial  scenes  peculiarly  grand 
and  splendid,  surpassing  everything  which  the  imagination  can 
well  represent;  and  these  scenes  diversified  almost  every  hour. 
What  should  we  think  of  a globe  appearing  in  our  nocturnal 
sky  1300  times  larger  than  the  apparent  size  of  the  moon,  and 
every  hour  assuming  a different  aspect? — of  five  or  six  bodies 
twenty  or  thirty  times  larger  than  our  moon  appears,  all  in 
rapid  motion,  and  continually  changing  their  phases  and  their 
apparent  magnitudes?  What  should  we  think  of  a globe  filling 
the  twentieth  part  of  the  sky,  and  surrounded  with  immense  rings 
in  rapid  motion,  diffusing  a radiance  over  the  whole  heavens? 
When  Jupiter  rises  to  his  satellites,  and  especially  when  Saturn 
and  his  rings  rise  to  his  nearest  moons,  a whole  quarter  of  the 
heavens  will  appear  in  one  blaze  of  light.*  At  other  times, 

* In  the  descriptions  formerly  given  of  the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  I have 
taken  for  granted,  that,  in  general,  the  secondary  planets  move  round  their  axes 
in  the  same  time  in  which  they  move  around  their  primaries,  as  is  the  case 


CELESTIAL  SCENERY. 


3G5 


when  the  sun  is  eclipsed,  or  when  the  dark  sides  of  these  globes 
are  turned  to  the  spectator,  the  starry  firmament  will  open  a 
new  scene  of  wonders,  and  planets  and  comets  be  occasionally 
beheld  in  their  courses  through  the  distant  regions  of  space. 

The  sublime  and  magnificent  scenes  displayed  in  those  regions; 
the  diversified  objects  presented  to  view;  the  incessant  changes 
in  their  phases  and  aspects;  the  rapidity  of  their  apparent 
motions;  and  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  real  motions  and 
relative  positions  of  the  bodies  in  the  firmament,  and  the  true 
system  of  the  world;  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  globes 
to  which  we  allude  are  replenished  not  merely  with  sensitive 
but  with  intellectual  beings.  For  such  sublime  and  interesting 
scenes  cannot  affect  inanimate  matter,  nor  even  mere  sentient 
beings  such  as  exist  in  our  world;  and  we  cannot  suppose  that 
the  Creator  would  form  such  magnificent  arrangements  to  be 
beheld  and  studied  by  no  rational  beings  capable  of  appreciating 
their  grandeur,  and  feeling  delight  in  their  contemplation.  It* 
creation  was  intended  as  a display  of  the  perfections  and  gran- 
deur of  the  Divine  Being,  there  must  exist  intelligent  minds  to 
whom  such  a display  is  exhibited;  otherwise,  the  material 
universe  cannot  answer  this  end,  and  might,  so  far  as  such  a 
design  is  concerned,  have  remained  for  ever  shut  up  in  the 
recesses  of  the  Eternal  Mind.  Such  scenes  could  not  have 
been  intended  merely  for  the  instruction  or  gratification  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth.  For  no  one  of  its  population  has  yet 
beheld  them  from  that  point  of  view,  in  which  their  grandeur  is 
displayed,  and  not  one  out  of  a hundred  thousand  yet  knows  that 
such  objects  exist.  We  are,  therefore,  irresistibly  led  to  the 
conclusion,  that  intelligent  minds  exist  in  the  regions  of  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  Uranus,  for  whose  pleasure  and  gratification  these 
sublime  scenes  were  created  and  arranged.  Those  minds,  too, 
in  all  probability  are  endowed  with  faculties  superior  in  intellec- 
tual energy  and  acumen  to  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe. 
For  the  rapidity  and  complexity  of  the  motions  presented  in  the 
firmament  of  some  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  the 

with  our  moon.  This  has  been  ascertained,  from  observation,  in  reference  to 
most  of  Jupiter’s  satellites,  and  in  tbe  case  of  the  outermost  satellite  of  Saturn. 
But  it  is  not  improbable,  from  the  variety  which  exists  in  the  planetary  system, 
that  some  of  the  secondary  planets  may  revolve  round  their  axes  in  periods 
different  from  those  in  which  they  revolve  around  their  primaries.  In  which 
case,  the  immense  disk  of  the  primary  planet  will  appear  to  rise  and  set,  and 
revolve  round  the  firmament  of  the  satellite ; and  when  it  rises,  of  course  a 
large  portion  of  the  sky  near  the  horizon  will  appear  in  one  blaze  of  light. 


366 


ARGUMENT  FROM 


variety  of  objects  exhibited  to  view,  and  the  frequent  and  rapid 
changes  of  their  phases  and  apparent  magnitudes,  are  such  as  to 
require  the  exertion  of  intellectual  faculties  more  powerful  and 
energetic  than  ours,  in  order  to  determine  the  real  motions  and 
positions  of  the  globes  around  them,  and  to  ascertain  the  order  of 
the  planetary  system  of  which  they  form  a part.  And  it  is  like- 
wise probable  that  their  organs  of  vision  are  more  acute  and 
penetrating  than  those  of  men;  otherwise  they  will  never  be  able 
to  discover  either  the  earth,  Mars,  Mercury,  or  Venus,  and  con- 
sequently may  suppose  that  such  bodies  have  no  existence. 

E 

section  v. 

Argument  V.  The  doctrine  of  a plurality  of  worlds  may  be 
argued  from  the  consideration  that,  in  the  world  we  inhabit, 
every  part  of  nature  is  destined  to  the  support  of  animated 
beings. 

There  is,  doubtless,  a certain  degree  of  pleasure  in  contem- 
plating the  material  world,  and  surveying  the  various  forms  into 
which  matter  has  been  wrought  and  arranged,  particularly  in 
the  admirable  structure  and  movements  of  systems  of  bodies, 
such  as  those  which  compose  the  planetary  system.  But  there 
is  something  still  more  interesting  and  wonderful  presented  to 
the  mind  when  we  contemplate  the  worlds  of  life.  The  material 
world  is  only,  as  it  were,  the  shell  of  the  universe;  the  mere 
substratum  of  thought  and  sensation;  living  beings  are  its  inha- 
bitants, for  whose  sake  alone  matter  is  valuable,  and  for  whose 
enjoyment  it  appears  to  have  been  created.  In  the  organization 
of  animated  existences,  in  the  various  parts  of  which  they  are 
composed,  in  the  adaptation  of  one  part,  or  organ,  to  another, 
in  their  different  functions,  and  the  multifarious  movements  of 
which  they  are  susceptible,  without  taking  into  consideration  the 
soul  that  animates  them, — there  is  a display  of  the  most  admi- 
rable mechanism,  and  the  nicest  contrivance,  which  is  not  to  be 
found  in  earth  or  stones,  in  rocks  of  diamond,  or  even  in  the 
figure  of  a planet  and  its  motion  round  the  sun. 

Hence  we  find  that  the  world  in  which  we  live  teems  with 
animated  existence.  Man  is  the  principal  inhabitant,  for  whose 
use  and  accommodation,  chiefly,  the  terraqueous  globe  was  formed 
and  arranged.  Had  not  the  Creator  intended  to  place  upon  its 
surface  beings  endowed  with  rational  faculties,  capable  of  enjoy- 
ing happiness,  and  recognising  the  perfections  of  its  Author, 


ANIMATED  BEINGS. 


367 


it  is  not  probable  that  it  would  have  been  created.  “ God  made 
man  in  his  own  image,”  and  “ gave  him  dominion  over  the  fish 
of  the  sea,  over  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  over  every  living  thing 
that  moveth  upon  the  earth.”  After  the  light  was  formed,  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  prepared,  and  the  waters  separated  from  the 
dry  land;  after  luminaries  were  placed  in  the  firmament,  and 
plants  and  animals  of  all  kinds  brought  into  existence,  the  world 
appeared  so  magnificently  adorned  that  it  might  have  been 
thought  perfect  and  complete.  But  all  nature  was  yet  destitute 
of  sentiment  and  gratitude;  there  were  no  beings  capable  of 
recognising  the  power  that  formed  them,  or  of  praising  the 
Author  of  their  varied  enjoyments.  The  world  was  still  in  a 
state  of  imperfection,  till  an  intelligence  was  formed  capable  of 
appreciating  the  perfections  of  the  Creator,  of  contemplating  his 
works,  and  of  offering  to  him  a tribute  of  grateful  adoration. 
Therefore  “ God  created  man  in  his  own  image,”  as  the  master- 
piece of  creation,  the  visible  representative  of  his  Maker,  and 
the  subordinate  ruler  of  this  lower  world. 

But  although  this  globe  was  created  chiefly  for  the  residence 
of  man,  it  was  not  destined  solely  for  his  enjoyment.  It  is  im- 
possible for  him  to  occupy  the  whole  of  its  surface,  or  of  the 
appendages  with  which  it  is  connected.  There  are  extensive 
marshes,  impenetrable  forests,  deep  caverns,  and  the  more  elevated 
parts  of  lofty  mountains,  where  human  feet  have  never  trod. 
There  is  a vast  body  of  water,  which  covers  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  atmosphere 
which  surrounds  the  earth,  which  men  cannot  occupy  as  perma- 
nent abodes.  Yet  these  regions  of  our  world  are  not  left  desti- 
tute of  inhabitants.  Numerous  tribes  of  animals  range  through 
the  uncultivated  deserts,  and  find  ample  accommodation  suited 
to  their  nature,  in  rocks  and  mountains,  in  dens  and  caves  of  the 
earth.  The  regions  of  the  air  are  filled  with  winged  creatures 
of  every  kind,  from  the  ostrich  and  the  eagle  to  the  numerous 
tribes  of  flying  insects  almost  invisible  to  the  unassisted  eye. 
The  ocean  teems  with  myriads  of  inhabitants  which  no  man  can 
number,  of  every  form  and  size,  from  the  mighty  whale  to  the 
numerous  tribes  of  Medusce  of  which  several  thousands  of  billions 
are  contained  in  a cubical  mile  of  water.  Every  sea,  lake,  and 
river  is  peopled  with  inhabitants;  every  mountain  and  marsh, 
every  wilderness  and  wood,  is  plentifully  stocked  with  birds, 
and  beasts,  and  numerous  species  of  insects,  all  of  which  find 
ample  accommodation,  and  everything  necessary  for  their  comfort 


368  MULTITUDE  AND  VARIETY  OF  LIVING  BEINGS. 

and  subsistence.  In  short,  every  part  of  matter  appears  to  be 
peopled — almost  every  green  leaf,  and  every  particle  of  dust,  has 
its  peculiar  inhabitants.  Not  only  are  the  larger  parts  of  nature 
occupied  with  living  beings,  even  the  most  minute  portions  of 
matter  teem  with  animated  existence.  Every  plant  and  shrub, 
and  almost  every  drop  of  water,  contains  its  respective  inhabi- 
tants. Their  number,  in  some  instances,  is  so  great,  and  their 
minuteness  so  astonishing,  that  thousands  of  them  are  contained 
within  a space  not  larger  than  a grain  of  sand.  In  some  small 
pools,  covered  with  a greenish  scum,  of  only  a few  yards  in 
extent,  there  are  more  living  creatures  than  there  are  human 
beings  on  the  surface  of  the  whole  earth. 

Multitudes  of  animated  beings  are  found  in  situations  and 
circumstances  where  we  should  never  have  expected  to  perceive 
the  principle  of  life.  The  juices  of  animals  and  plants,  corrupted 
matter,  excrements,  smoke,  dry  wood,  the  bark  and  roots  of  trees, 
the  bodies  of  other  animals,  and  even  their  entrails,  the  dunghill, 
and  the  dirty  puddle,  the  itch,  and  other  disorders  which  are 
attended  with  blotches  and  pimples,  and  even  the  hardest  stones 
and  rocks,  serve  to  lodge,  and  in  some  measure  to  feed,  number- 
less tribes  of  living  beings.  The  number  of  such  creatures 
exceeds  all  human  calculation  and  conception.  There  may  be 
reckoned  far  more  than  a hundred  thousand  species  of  animated 
beings,  many  of  these  species  containing  individuals  to  the 
amount  of  several  hundreds  of  times  the  number  of  the  human 
inhabitants  of  our  globe.  It  is  supposed,  by  some,  that  the 
tremulous  motion  observed  in  the  air  during  summer  may  be 
produced  by  millions  of  insects  swarming  in  the  atmosphere; 
and  it  has  been  found  that  the  light  which  is  seen  on  the  surface 
of  the  ocean,  during  the  nights  of  summer,  is  owing  to  an  innu- 
merable multitude  of  small  luminous  worms,  or  insects,  sporting 
in  the  waters.  All  the  numberless  species  of  animals  which 
exist  on  the  different  departments  of  our  globe,  are  likewise 
infinitely  diversified  in  their  forms,  organs,  senses,  members, 
faculties,  movements,  and  gradations  of  excellence.  As  Mr. 
Addison  has  observed,  “ the  whole  chasm  of  nature,  from  a plant 
to  a man,  is  filled  up  with  divers  kind  of  creatures  rising  one 
above  another  by  such  a gentle  and  easy  ascent,  that  the  little 
transitions  and  deviations  from  one  species  to  another  are  almost 
insensible.  This  intermediate  space  is  so  well  husbanded  and 
managed,  that  there  is  scarce  a degree  of  perception  which  does 
not  appear  in  some  one  part  of  the  world  of  life.”  Here  we  have 


RELATION  OF  MATTER  TO  MIND. 


369 


an  evidence  both  of  the  infinite  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  the 
Divine  Being,  and  of  his  boundless  goodness  in  conferring  exist- 
ence and  happiness  on  such  a countless  multitude  of  percipient 
beings. 

Since,  then,  it  appears  that  every  portion  of  matter  in  our 
world  was  intended  for  the  support  and  accommodation  of 
animated  beings,  it  would  be  absurd  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
inconsistent  with  the  character  of  the  Deity,  and  his  general 
plan  of  operation,  to  suppose  that  the  vast  regions  of  the  planets, 
so  exceedingly  more  expansive  than  our  globe,  are  left  destitute 
of  inhabitants.  Shall  one  small  planet  be  thus  crowded  with 
a population  of  percipient  beings  of  all  descriptions,  and  shall 
regions  four  hundred  times  more  expansive  be  left  without  one 
living  inhabitant?  Can  the  Deity  delight  to  communicate 
enjoyment  in  so  many  thousands  of  varied  forms  to  unnumbered 
myriads  of  sensitive  existences  in  our  terrestrial  sphere,  and 
leave  the  noblest  planets  of  the  system  without  a single  trace  of 
his  benevolence?  Can  we  suppose,  for  a moment,  that  while  his 
wisdom  shines  so  conspicuous  in  the  mechanism  of  the  various 
tribes  of  animals  around  us,  no  similar  marks  of  intelligence  are 
to  be  found  in  other  regions  of  the  universe?  Such  conclusions 
can  never  be  admitted,  unless  we  suppose  that  infinite  wisdom 
and  goodness  have  been  exhausted  in  the  arrangements  which 
have  been  made  in  relation  to  our  world,  or  that  the  Great 
Source  of  felicity  is  indifferent  about  the  communication  of 
happiness. 

As  far  as  our  observation  extends,  it  appears  that  the  mate- 
rial world  is  useless,  except  in  the  relation  it  bears  to  animated 
and  intellectual  beings.  Matter  was  evidently  framed  for  the 
purpose  of  mind;  and  if  we  could  suppose  that  the  vast  masses  of 
matter  in  the  heavens  had  no  relation  to  mind,  they  must,  then, 
have  been  created  in  vain — a supposition  which  would  derogate 
from  the  moral  character  and  the  perfections  of  Him  who  is  66  the 
only  wise  God.”  A superior  nature  cannot  be  supposed  to  be 
formed  for  the  sake  of  an  inferior.  A skilful  artist  would  never 
think  of  designing  that  which  is  of  the  greatest  dignity,  or  which 
requires  the  utmost  precision,  and  the  nicest  mechanism,  for  the 
sake  of  the  inferior  part  of  his  workmanship.  He  does  not 
construct  the  wheels  and  pinions  of  an  orrery  for  the  sake  of  the 
handle  by  which  they  are  moved,  or  of  the  pedestal  on  which 
the  instrument  stands ; nor  does  he  contrive  a time-piece  merely 
for  the  sake  of  the  shell,  or  case,  in  which  it  is  to  be  enclosed. 

B B 


370 


ARGUMENTS  FROM 


In  like  manner,  we  cannot  imagine  that  man  was  made  for  the 
sake  of  the  brutes,  or  the  inferior  animals  for  the  sake  of  vege- 
tables, or  the  yearly  production  of  vegetables  for  the  relief  and 
comfort  of  the  soil  on  which  they  grow.  This  would  be  to  invert 
the  order  of  the  universe,  and  to  involve  us  in  the  most  palpable 
absurdity.  The  order  of  things  always  rises  upwards  by  gentle 
and  regular  degrees,  from  inanimate  matter,  through  all  the 
gradations  of  vegetable,  animal,  and  immaterial  existence,  till 
we  arrive  at  the  Eternal  and  Incomprehensible  Divinity.  Hence 
it  appears,  that  the  earth  must  have  been  formed,  not  for  itself, 
but  for  the  sake  of  the  vegetable,  sensitive,  and  intellectual 
beings  it  supports;  and,  by  a parity  of  reason,  the  planets,  most 
of  which  are  much  more  spacious  and  more  magnificently  adorned, 
must  have  been  formed  and  arranged  for  the  sake  of  superior 
natures. 

“ Existence,”  as  a certain  writer  has  observed,  “ is  a blessing 
to  those  beings  only  which  are  endued  with  perception,  and  is, 
in  a manner,  thrown  away  upon  dead  matter  any  further  than 
as  it  is  subservient  to  beings  which  are  conscious  of  their 
existence.”  Accordingly  we  find,  from  the  bodies  which  lie 
under  our  observation,  that  matter  is  only  made  as  the  basis  and 
support  of  living  beings,  and  that  there  is  little  more  of  the  one 
than  what  is  necessary  for  the  existence  and  the  ample  accom- 
modation of  the  other.  The  earth,  as  to  amplitude  of  space, 
would  contain  a hundred  times  the  number  of  animated  beings 
it  actually  supports;  and  the  ocean  might  perhaps  contain  thou- 
sands more  than  what  are  found  amidst  its  recesses;  but,  in  such 
a case,  they  would  not  have  free  scope  for  their  movements, 
nor  experience  all  the  comforts  and  accommodations  they  now 
enjoy. 

From  what  has  been  now  stated,  it  appears  that  the  Divine 
Goodness  is  of  so  communicative  a nature  that  it  seems  to  delight 
in  conferring  existence  and  happiness  on  every  order  of  percep- 
tive beings,  and  therefore  has  left  no  part  connected  with  the 
world  in  which  we  live  without  its  inhabitants:  and  that  no 
creature,  capable  of  feeling  the  pleasure  of  existence,  might 
be  omitted  in  the  plan  of  benevolence,  there  is  an  almost  infinite 
diversity  in  the  rank  and  order  of  percipient  existence.  The 
scale  of  sensitive  being  begins  with  those  creatures  which  are 
raised  just  above  dead  matter.  Commencing  at  the  polypus, 
and  certain  species  of  shell-fish,  it  ascends,  by  numerous  gra- 
dations, till  it  arrive  at  man.  How  far  it  may  ascend  beyond 


THE  DIVINE  GOODNESS. 


37] 


this  point  is  beyond  the  limits  of  our  knowledge  to  determine. 
Had  only  one  species  of  animals  been  created,  none  of  the  rest 
would  have  enjoyed  the  pleasures  of  existence.  But  in  the  ex- 
isting state  of  things,  all  nature  is  full  of  enjoyment,  and  that 
enjoyment  endlessly  diversified,  according  to  the  rank  and  the 
percipient  powers  of  the  different  species  of  animated  existence. 
It  would  therefore  be  a reflection  on  the  goodness  as  well  as  on 
the  wisdom  of  the  Divine  Being,  were  we  to  suppose  that  no 
traces  of  Divine  beneficence  were  to  be  found  amidst  the  expan- 
sive regions  of  the  planetary  globes.  It  would  form  a perfect 
contrast  to  the  operations  of  Infinite  Benevolence,  as  displayed 
in  our  terrestrial  system,  and  would  almost  lead  us  to  conclude, 
that  the  same  Almighty  Agent  did  not  preside  in  both  these 
departments  of  the  universe.  But  we  may  rest  assured  that  the 
Deity  always  acts  in  harmony  with  his  character,  throughout 
every  part  of  his  dominions ; and  therefore  we  may  confidently 
conclude,  that  countless  multitudes  of  sensitive  and  intellectual 
beings,  far  more  numerous  and  diversified  than  on  earth,  people 
the  planetary  regions. 

From  what  has  been  stated  on  this  subject,  we  may  likewise 
conclude,  with  certainty,  that  the  planetary  worlds  are  not 
peopled  merely  with  animal  existences,  but  also  with  rational 
and  intellectual  natures . For  the  scenes  displayed  in  most  of 
the  planets  cannot  be  appreciated  by  mere  sensitive  beings,  nor 
are  they  calculated  to  afford  them  any  gratification.  Besides,  if 
it  be  one  great  design  of  the  Creator  to  manifest  the  glory  of  his 
perfections  to  other  beings,  none  but  those  who  are  furnished 
with  rational  faculties  are  capable  of  recognising  his  attributes 
as  displayed  in  his  works,  and  of  offering  to  him  a tribute  of 
thanksgiving  and  adoration.  Such  intelligences,  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe,  may  far  surpass  the  human  race  in  their  intel- 
lectual powers  and  capacities.  There  is  an  infinite  gap  between 
man  and  the  Deity,  and  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  it  is 
entirely  unoccupied.  There  is  a regular  gradation  from  inani- 
mate matter  and  vegetative  life,  through  all  the  varieties  of 
animal  existence  till  we  arrive  at  man.  But  we  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  the  ascending  scale  terminates  at  the  point  of 
the  human  faculties,  unless  we  suppose  that  the  soul  of  man  is 
the  most  perfect  intelligence  next  to  the  Divinity.  If  the  scale  of 
being  rises  by  such  a regular  progress  to  man,  by  a parity  of  reason 
we  may  suppose,  that  it  still  proceeds  gradually  through  those 
beings  that  are  endowed  with  superior  faculties ; since  there  is  an 

b b 2 


372  PLANETS  PEOPLED  WITH  RATIONAL  BEINGS. 

immensely  greater  space  between  man  and  the  Deity  than  between 
man  and  the  lowest  order  of  sensitive  existence.  And  although 
we  were  to  conceive  the  scale  of  intellectual  existence  above  man, 
rising  thousands  of  times  higher  than  that  which  intervenes 
between  inanimate  matter  and  the  human  soul,  still  there  would 
be  an  infinite  distance  between  the  highest  created  intelligence 
and  the  Eternal  Mind,  which  could  never  be  overpassed.  It  is 
quite  accordant  with  all  that  we  know  of  the  perfections  and 
operations  of  the  Deity  to  conclude,  that  such  a progression  of 
intellectual  beings  exists  throughout  the  universe;  and  therefore 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  in  some  of  the  planets  of  our 
system  there  are  intellectual  natures  far  superior,  in  point  of 
mental  vigour  and  capacity,  to  the  brightest  geniuses  that  have 
ever  appeared  upon  earth;  and  in  other  systems  of  creation,  the 
scale  of  spiritual  progression  may  be  indefinitely  extended,  far 
beyond  the  limits  to  which  human  imagination  can  penetrate. 
In  the  contemplation  of  such  scenes  of  percipient  and  intelligent 
existence,  we  perceive  no  boundaries  to  the  prospect;  the  mind 
is  overwhelmed  amidst  the  immensity  of  being,  and  feels  itself 
unable  to  grasp  the  plans  of  Eternal  Wisdom,  and  the  innume- 
rable gradations  of  intelligence  over  which  the  moral  government 
of  the  Deity  extends.  And  therefore  we  may  justly  conclude, 
that  wonders  of  power,  wisdom,  and  benevolence,  still  remain 
for  the  admiration  of  intellectual  beings,  which  the  scenes  of 
eternity  alone  can  disclose. 

Intellectual  beings  may  likewise  be  distinguished  into  those 
which  are  linked  to  mortal , and  those  which  are  connected  with 
immortal  bodies.  In  the  present  state  of  our  terrestrial  system, 
immortal  bodies  cannot  exist.  Had  immortality  been  intended 
for  man  on  earth,  Infinite  Wisdom  would  have  adopted  another 
plan;  for  the  constitution  of  the  earth,  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
waters,  is  not  adapted  to  the  support  and  preservation  of  immortal 
beings — that  is,  of  those  intelligences  which  inhabit  a system 
of  corporeal  organization.  From  the  reciprocal  action  of  solids 
and  fluids — of  earth,  air,  and  water — life  results;  and  this  very 
action  continued — according  to  the  laws  which  now  operate — is 
the  natural  cause  of  death , or  the  dissolution  of  the  corporeal 
system.  But,  in  other  worlds,  a system  of  means  may  be  adapted 
for  preserving  in  perpetual  activity,  and  to  an  indefinite  duration, 
the  functions  of  the  corporeal  machine,  which  is  animated  by 
the  intellectual  principle;  as  would  probably  have  happened  in 
the  case  of  man,  had  he  retained  his  original  moral  purity,  and 


VARIETY  OF  INTELLECTUAL  BEINGS. 


373 


his  allegiance  to  his  Maker.  Intelligent  beings  may  likewise 
exist,  which  are  destined  to  pass  from  one  state  of  corporeal 
organization  to  another,  in  a long  series  of  changes,  advancing 
from  one  degree  of  corporeal  perfection  to  another,  till  their 
organical  vehicles  become  as  pure  and  refined  as  light,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  the  same  degree  of  rapid  motion.  The  butterfly  is 
first  an  egg,  then  a worm,  afterwards  it  becomes  a chrysalis,  and 
it  is  not  before  it  has  burst  its  confinement  that  it  wings  its 
flight,  in  gaudy  colours,  through  the  air.  Man  is  destined  to 
burst  his  mortal  coil,  to  enter  a new  vehicle,  and  at  last  to 
receive  a body  “ incorruptible,  powerful,  glorious,  and  immortal.” 
Varieties  analogous  to  these  may  exist  throughout  other  regions 
of  the  universe.  If  there  are  not  in  nature  two  leaves  precisely 
alike,  or  two  trees,  two  cabbages,  two  caterpillars,  or  two  men 
and  women,  exactly  similar,  in  every  point  of  view  in  which 
they  may  be  contemplated,  how  can  we  suppose  that  there  can 
be  two  planets,  or  two  systems  of  planets,  exactly  alike,  or  that 
the  corporeal  organs  and  faculties  of  their  inhabitants,  in  every 
respect,  resemble  each  other?  Every  globe,  and  every  system  of 
worlds,  has  doubtless  its  peculiar  economy,  laws,  productions, 
and  inhabitants.  This  conclusion  is  warranted  from  all  that  we 
know  of  the  operations  of  the  Creator;  it  exhibits,  in  a striking 
point  of  view,  the  depths  of  His  wisdom  and  intelligence,  and  it 
opens  to  immortal  beings  a prospect  boundless  as  immensity — 
in  the  contemplation  of  which  their  faculties  may  be  for  ever 
exercised,  and  their  views  of  the  wonders  of  Creating  Power 
and  Wisdom  continually  extending,  while  myriads  of  ages  roll 
away. 


In  the  preceding  pages,  I have  endeavoured  to  illustrate  the 
doctrine  of  a plurality  of  worlds,  from  the  considerations — that 
there  are  bodies  in  the  planetary  system  of  such  magnitudes  as 
to  afford  ample  scope  for  myriads  of  inhabitants — that  there  is  a 
general  similarity  among  all  the  bodies  of  the  system,  which 
affords  a presumptive  evidence  that  they  are  intended  to  subserve 
the  same  ultimate  designs — that  connected  with  the  planets,  there 
are  special  arrangements  which  indicate  their  adaptation  to  the 
enjoyment  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings — that  the  scenery  of 
the  heavens , as  viewed  from  the  surfaces  of  the  larger  planets  and 
their  satellites , forms  a presumptive  proof  of  the  same  position — 
and  that  the  fact,  that  every  part  of  nature  in  our  world  is 


374 


SUMMARY  OF  ARGUMENTS. 


destined  to  the  support  of  animated  beings , affords  a powerful 
argument  in  support  of  this  doctrine.  These  arguments,  when 
viewed  in  all  their  bearings,  and  in  connexion  with  the  wisdom 
and  benevolence  of  the  Divine  Being,  may  be  considered  as 
amounting  to  moral  demonstrations  that  the  planets  and  their 
satellites,  as  well  as  other  departments  of  the  universe,  are  the 
abodes  of  sensitive  and  intelligent  natures.  These,  however, 
are  not  all  the  considerations  or  arguments  which  might  be 
brought  forward  in  proof  of  this  position.  Many  others,  founded 
on  a consideration  of  the  nature  and  relations  of  things,  and  the 
attributes  of  the  Divinity,  and  particularly  some  powerful  argu- 
ments derived  from  the  records  of  Revelation,  might  have  been 
stated  and  particularly  illustrated.  But  I shall  leave  the  further 
consideration  of  this  topic  to  another  volume,  in  which  we  shall 
take  a survey  of  the  scenery  of  the  starry  firmament,  and  of 
other  objects  connected  with  the  science  of  the  heavens. 

On  the  whole,  the  doctrine  of  a plurality  of  worlds  is  a subject 
of  considerable  importance,  and  in  which  every  rational  being, 
who  is  convinced  of  his  immortal  destination,  is  deeply  interested. 
It  opens  to  our  view  a boundless  prospect  of  knowledge  and 
felicity  beyond  the  limits  of  the  present  world,  and  displays  the 
ineffable  grandeur  of  the  Divinity,  the  magnificence  of  his 
empire,  and  the  harmonious  operation  of  his  infinite  perfections. 
"Without  taking  this  doctrine  into  account,  we  can  form  no  con- 
sistent views  of  the  character  of  Omnipotence,  and  of  the 
arrangements  which  exist  in  the  universe.  Both  his  wisdom  and 
his  goodness  might  be  called  in  question,  and  an  idea  of  the 
Supreme  Ruler  presented,  altogether  different  from  what  is  exhi- 
bited by  the  inspired  writers  in  the  records  of  Revelation. 
When,  therefore,  we  lift  our  eyes  to  the  heavens,  and  contem- 
plate the  mighty  globes  which  roll  around  us — when  we  consider 
that  their  motions  are  governed  by  the  same  common  laws,  and 
that  they  are  so  constructed  as  to  furnish  accommodation  for 
myriads  of  perceptive  existence — we  ought  always  to  view  them 
as  the  abodes  of  intelligence,  and  the  theatres  of  Divine  Wisdom, 
on  which  the  Creator  displays  his  boundless  beneficence.  For 
“ his  tender  mercies,”  or  the  emanations  of  his  goodness,  “ are 
diffused  over  all  his  works”  Such  views  alone  can  solve  a thou- 
sand doubts  which  may  arise  in  our  minds,  and  free  us  from  a 
thousand  absurdities  which  we  must  otherwise  entertain  respect- 
ing the  Great  Sovereign  of  the  universe.  Without  adopting 
such  views,  the  science  of  the  heavens  becomes  a comparatively 


PROSPECTS  OF  FUTURITY. 


375 


barren  and  uninteresting  study,  and  the  splendour  of  the 
nocturnal  sky  conveys  no  ideas  of  true  sublimity  and  grandeur, 
nor  is  it  calculated  to  inspire  the  soul  with  sentiments  of  love 
and  adoration.  In  short,  there  appears  to  be  no  medium 
between  remaining  in  ignorance  of  all  the  wonders  of  Power  and 
Wisdom  which  appear  in  the  heavens,  and  acquiescing  in  the 
general  views  we  have  attempted  to  illustrate  respecting  the 
economy  of  the  planets,  and  their  destination  as  the  abodes  of 
reason  and  intelligence.  But,  when  such  views  are  recognised, 
the  bodies  in  the  heavens  become  the  noblest  objects  of  human 
contemplation,  the  Deity  appears  invested  with  a character  truly 
amiable  and  sublime,  and  a prospect  is  opened  to  immortal  beings 
of  a perpetual  increase  of  knowledge  and  felicity  throughout  all 
the  revolutions  of  an  interminable  existence. 


APPENDIX, 


CONTAINING 

AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  LATE  DISCOVERIES  WHICH  HAVE 
BEEN  MADE  IN  REFERENCE  TO  THE  PLANETARY 
SYSTEM. 

At  the  conclusion  of  Section  9,  Chapter  III.,  we  stated  our  opinion 
of  the  high  probability  that  planets  might  still  be  discovered 
both  within  and  even  far  beyond  the  orbit  of  Uranus , and  in 
various  other  parts  of  the  Solar  system.  Since  the  former 
editions  of  this  work  were  published,  these  anticipations  have 
been  partly  realized.  Within  the  last  two  or  three  years  no  less 
than  five  primary  planets,  in  addition  to  those  formerly  known, 
have  been  discovered.  The  following  is  a brief  sketch  of  the 
history  of  these  discoveries,  and  of  the  peculiarities  of  these 
bodies,  in  so  far  as  they  are  known.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these,  particularly  in  respect  to  the  means  by  which  it  was  dis- 
covered, is 


THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 

r The  discovery  of  this  planet  forms  a remarkable  era  in  the 
history  of  astronomy.  It  was  not  discovered  by  observation,  as 
was  the  planet  Uranus  and  others  which  have  been  detected  in 
modern  times;  but  its  place  in  the  heavens  was  found  out  by 
calculations  founded  on  the  principles  of  physical  astronomy, 
and  on  the  discrepancies  which  were  found  to  exist  between  the 
observed  and  the  calculated  places  of  Uranus.  It  was  conceived 
by  some  astronomers  that  probably  some  disturbing  body  existed 
beyond  that  planet,  which  had  hitherto  eluded  the  observation 
of  astronomical  observers,  and  which  produced  the  irregularities 
to  which  we  allude.  The  following  is  a short  sketch  of  the 
history  of  this  discovery. 

From  the  year  1781 — the  time  of  the  discovery  of  Uranus  by 
Herschel — till  1 820,  Bouvard,  a French  astronomer,  noted  down 
its  track  in  the  heavens;  but  there  appeared  certain  irregularities 
in  its  motions  which  could  not  be  accounted  for,  and  which  gave 


THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 


377 


rise  to  a number  of  conjectures.  Some  imagined  that  the  attrac- 
tion of  gravitation  did  not  prevail  in  the  regions  beyond  the 
orbit  of  Saturn;  others,  that  the  irregularities  were  caused  by  a 
large  invisible  satellite  attendant  on  Uranus;  and  others,  that  the 
stroke  of  a comet  deflected  the  planet  from  its  path;  but  none 
of  these  conjectures  appeared  satisfactory. — The  Reverend  Dr. 
Hussey,  in  1834,  wrote  to  Professor  Airy,  of  the  Royal  Observa- 
tory, Greenwich,  that  he  conjectured  the  possibility  of  some 
disturbing  body  beyond  Uranus,  and  that  he  had  found  that 
Bouvard  and  Hansen  had  been  in  correspondence  on  a similar 
conjecture.  In  1842,  the  late  distinguished  astronomer,  Bessel , 
in  conversation  with  Sir  J.  Herschel,  in  reply  to  the  question 
whether  the  deviation  in  question  might  not  be  due  to  the 
actions  of  an  unknown  planet,  stated,  that  he  thought  it  highly 
probable  that  such  was  the  case.  But,  till  September,  1845, 
there  was  not  produced  by  any  astronomer  a research  that  was 
calculated  to  decide  this  question.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
Mr.  J.  C.  Adams,  Fellow  and  Assistant  of  St.  John’s  College, 
Cambridge,  communicated  to  Professor  Challis,  of  the  Cambridge 
Observatory,  values  which  he  obtained  for  the  heliocentric  longi- 
tude, eccentricity  of  orbit,  longitude  of  perihelion,  and  mass  of  an 
assumed  exterior  planet,  deduced  entirely  from  unaccounted-for 
perturbations  of  Uranus.  The  same  results,  somewhat  corrected, 
were  left  at  the  Observatory  of  Greenwich  about  the  end  of  the 
following  October,  in  a paper  containing  the  following  statement. 
“ According  to  my  calculations,  the  observed  irregularities  in 
the  motion  of  Uranus  may  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  the 
existence  of  an  exterior  planet,  the  mass  and  orbit  of  which  are 
as  follows: — 

Mean  distance  (assumed  nearly  in  accordance  with  Bode’s  law)  3°  8.4 


Mean  sidereal  motion  in  365^  days 1°  30.9 

Mean  longitude,  1st  October,  1845  323°  34 

Longitude  of  perihelion 315°  55 

Eccentricity  0.1610 

Mass,  that  of  the  sun  being  unity 0.0001656” 


These  were  the  first  intimations  of  the  new  planet  that  were 
ever  made  public,  and  at  or  near  the  position  here  assigned  to 
it,  it  was  afterwards  seen  by  Professor  Challis,  of  the  Cambridge 
Observatory.  Had  Mr.  Airy  attended  to  the  above,  as  he  ought 
to  have  done,  Mr.  Adams  would  have  enjoyed  the  undivided 
merit  of  being  the  first  discoverer  of  this  planet;  and  we  cannot 
but  feel  indignant  at  the  apathy  and  neglect  of  the  Royal  Astro- 


378 


APPENDIX. 


nomer,  especially  when  we  consider  that  Mr.  Adams  made  two 
journeys  to  Greenwich  to  explain  this  matter,  and  left  his  papers 
and  calculations  at  the  Observatory. 

In  the  Comptes  Rendus  for  June  the  1st,  1846 — eight  months 
after  Mr.  Adams  had  made  known  the  elements  of  the  new 
planet’s  orbit  to  the  English  astronomers — M.  Le  Verrier  gave  a 
memoir  on  the  theory  of  Uranus,  in  which  he  affirmed  the 
necessity  of  admitting  the  hypothesis  of  an  exterior  planet.  No 
elements  of  the  orbit  or  mass  were  given,  but  its  longitude,  it 
was  stated,  for  the  beginning  of  1847,  should  be  about  326°. 
He  communicated  his  principal  conclusions  to  the  astronomers 
of  the  Berlin  Observatory  on  September  the  23rd,  and,  guided 
thereby,  and  comparing  the  observations  with  a star  map, 
M.  Galle  found  the  planet  on  the  same  evening. — Professor 
Challis,  before  this  time,  in  consequence  of  a laborious  research, 
had  actually  seen  the  planet.  On  July  30th,  he  went  over  a zone 
of  the  heavens  9'  broad,  in  such  a manner  as  to  include  all  stars 
up  to  the  eleventh  magnitude.  On  August  4th  he  took  a wider 
zone,  and  recorded  a place  of  the  planet.  His  next  observations 
were  on  August  12th,  when  he  met  with  a star  of  the  8th  mag- 
nitude in  the  zone  which  he  had  gone  over  on  July  30th, 
which  did  not  then  contain  this  star.  Of  course  this  was  the 
planet — the  place  of  which  was  thus  recorded  a second  time,  in 
four  days  of  observing.  A comparison  of  the  observations  of 
July  30th  and  August  12th  would,  according  to  the  principle  of 
search  which  he  employed,  have  showed  him  the  planet,  but  he 
did  not  make  the  comparison  till  after  the  detection  of  it  at 
Berlin.  The  planet,  however,  was  secured,  and  two  positions 
of  it  recorded  six  weeks  earlier  than  any  other  observatory,  and 
in  a systematic  search  expressly  undertaken  for  that  purpose. 
And  although  Professor  Challis  is  not  acknowledged  as  the  first 
discoverer  of  this  planet,  he  has  at  least  the  satisfaction  of  having 
seen  and  recorded  its  position  six  weeks  earlier  than  he  who  is 
considered  the  real  discoverer. 

This  planet  appears  like  a star  of  the  8th  magnitude,  and  con- 
sequently may  be  seen  with  a moderate  degree  of  magnifying 
power;  but  it  will  be  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  small  neigh- 
bouring stars,  unless  with  a very  high  power,  when  a disk  may  be 
perceived.  Its  distance  from  the  sun  is  reckoned  about  30  times 
that  of  the  earth,  or  2,850,000,000,  that  is,  two  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  miles,  or  more  than  a thousand 


THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 


379 


millions  of  miles  beyond  the  orbit  of  Uranus.  The  apparent 
disk  of  this  planet  subtends  an  angle  of  something  more  than  3 
seconds,  and  its  diameter  will  consequently  be  50,000  miles.  Of 
course,  it  is  about  250  times  larger  than  the  earth,  and  three 
times  larger  than  Uranus,  and  above  a hundred  times  larger 
than  the  whole  mass  of  the  Earth  and  Moon,  Mars,  Venus,  Mer- 
cury, Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta  taken  together.  So  that 
here  we  have  a planet  which  has  been  hid  from  the  view  of 
mortals,  in  the  profundity  of  space,  for  thousands  of  years,  ex- 
ceeding in  bulk  a large  retinue  of  spacious  worlds:  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  alone  are  its  superiors.  Its  apparent  motion,  when  dis- 
covered, was  retrograde  at  4 seconds  per  day.  Its  revolution 
round  the  sun  is  reckoned  to  be  accomplished  in  about  166  years. 

Mr.  Lassel,  of  Starfield,  near  Liverpool,  states,  that  soon  after 
its  discovery  he  had  different  views  of  it,  and  believes  that 
he  may  confidently  assert  that  it  is  surrounded  by  a ring , like 
that  of  Saturn,  placed  three  diameters  from  the  body  of  the 
planet.  This  discovery  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  some  late 
observations  of  Professor  Challis.  “ I have  been  able,”  says  he, 
6i  with  the  Northumberland  telescope,  to  verify  Mr.  Lassel’s  sus- 
picions of  a ring.  I first  received  the  impression  of  a ring  on 
the  12th  January,  1847.  Two  independent  drawings  made  by 
myself  and  my  assistant,  Mr.  Morgan,  gave  the  same  represen- 
tation of  its  appearance  and  position.  The  ring  is  very  little 
open:  its  diameter  makes  an  angle  in  the  S.  proceeding  quadrant 
of  66°  with  the  parallel  of  declination.  The  ratio  of  the  diameter 
of  the  ring  with  that  of  the  planet  is,  by  estimation,  as  3 to  2.  I am 
at  a loss  to  account  for  my  not  having  noticed  the  ring  earlier.” 

It  also  appears  that  Neptune  is  attended  by  at  least  one  satel- 
lite, which  Mr.  Lassel  has  several  times  seen.  In  a letter  dated 
September  20th,  1847,  he  informs  the  editor  of  the  Times  that 
he  has  ascertained  the  period  of  the  satellite  to  be  5 days,  20 
hours,  50  minutes,  45  seconds.  The  projected  orbit  is  a narrow 
ellipse,  with  an  axis  inclined  to  about  28  degrees  to  the  ecliptic, 
and  with  its  semi-axis  subtending  about  18  seconds,  so  that  the 
satellite  is  about  250,000  miles  from  the  planet,  or  a little  more 
than  the  distance  between  the  Earth  and  Moon.  This  satellite 
is  much  brighter  in  the  preceding  than  in  the  following  half  of 
its  orbit.  This  variation  seems  to  show  that  one  side  of  the 
satellite  has  less  light  than  the  other.  It  is  likewise  evident  that 
this  satellite  must  be  a body  of  very  considerable  size,  otherwise 


380 


APPENDIX. 


it  would  not  be  visible  at  such  an  immense  distance.  It  is  pro- 
bably much  larger  than  any  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  or  Saturn, 
and  may  far  exceed  our  globe  in  magnitude. 

The  heliocentric  longitude  of  this  planet  for  the  epoch 
January,  1847,  was  ascertained  by  M.  Galle,  the  discoverer,  to 
be  327°  24'.  The  longitude  predicted  by  Le  Verrier,  previous 
to  its  discovery,  was  326°  32'.  This  was  a most  wonderful 
coincidence  between  the  place  of  the  planet  as  ascertained  by 
calculation,  and  its  real  position  as  determined  by  observation. 
The  difference  is  only  52  minutes  of  a degree — a space  in  the 
heavens  little  more  than  the  lineal  extent  of  one  diameter  and  a 
half  of  the  sun  or  moon,  and  much  less  than  the  apparent  dis- 
tance between  any  of  the  two  stars  which  form  the  belt  of  Orion. 
The  whole  annals  of  astronomical  science  do  not,  perhaps,  pre- 
sent such  a striking  verification  of  any  theoretical  conjecture 
formed  by  the  human  mind.  Yet  this  wonderful  achievement 
in  calculation  and  research  was  effected  by  a young  man  scarcely 
arrived  at  his  prime,  while  royal  astronomers  overlooked  such 
investigations,  and  deprived  themselves  of  the  honour  of  such 
discoveries.  Le  Verrier,  in  reference  to  this  discovery,  thus 
speaks: — “ This  success  permits  us  to  hope  that  after  thirty  or 
forty  years  of  observation  on  the  new  planet,  we  may  employ  it, 
in  its  turn,  for  the  discovery  of  the  one  following  it,  in  its  order 
of  distances  from  the  sun.  Thus,  at  least,  we  should  unhappily 
soon  fall  among  bodies  invisible  by  reason  of  their  immense  dis- 
tance, but  whose  orbits  might  yet  be  traced  in  a succession  of 
ages,  with  the  greatest  exactness,  by  the  theory  of  secular 
inequalities.”  Although  Mr.  Adams’  name  is  not  so  frequently 
coupled  with  this  discovery  as  that  of  Le  Verrier,  yet  he  is 
equally  entitled  to  praise,  and  to  the  honour  due  to  the  discovery. 
He  was,  indeed,  the  first  who  made  known  the  result  of  his  in- 
vestigations, and  the  planet  was  actually  seen  by  Professor 
Challis  in  consequence  of  the  position  he  pointed  out.  He  is 
likewise  a young  man,  not  yet  arrived  at  his  prime. 

The  discovery  of  this  far-distant  planet,  in  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  effected,  constitutes  not  only  a new  era  in  the 
progress  of  celestial  science,  but  also  evinces  the  perspicacity 
of  the  human  intellect,  and  the  certainty  and  uniformity  of 
those  physical  laws  by  which  the  bodies  of  the  planetary 
system  are  directed,  and  that  the  law  of  gravitation  is  extensive 
in  its  influence — reaching  far  beyond  what  were  formerly  consi- 
dered the  boundaries  of  our  system,  and  probably  exerting  its 


THE  PLANET  NEPTUNE. 


381 


energies  throughout  all  the  worlds  that  roll  through  the  spaces 
of  infinitude.  We  have  here  a new  confirmation  of  the  theory 
of  universal  gravitation.  The  first  step  in  the  exhibition  of  that 
law  was  the  discovery  made  by  Newton,  that  the  earth  attracts 
the  moon.  The  principle  was  likewise  found  to  explain  the 
revolution  of  the  planets  round  the  sun.  Besides,  it  was  found 
that  the  movements  of  the  secondary  planets  round  their 
primaries  were  owing  to  the  same  cause.  The  application  of 
this  law  likewise  explained  certain  anomalies  in  the  moon  and 
planets,  for  which  it  was  otherwise  difficult  to  account.  A great 
inequality  in  the  movements  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  which  was 
long  unaccounted  for,  was  at  length  traced  to  their  reciprocal 
action  on  each  other  by  the  operation  of  this  law.  The  effects 
of  the  attraction  of  planets  that  could  be  observed,  and  whose 
existence  was  known,  could  then  be  calculated.  In  respect  to 
the  newly-discovered  body,  the  mean  distance  and  position — the 
mass  and  the  form  of  its  orbit,  were  all  unknown.  But  by  its 
observed  effects,  these  were  all  so  well  determined  as  to  guide 
the  observer  almost  to  the  very  point  of  the  heavens  where  it 
was  first  seen.  This  fact  stands  almost  alone  in  the  records  of 
astronomical  science.  There  has  been  no  discovery  of  the  same 
kind  before  it  in  the  annals  of  astronomy,  and  it  may  lead  to 
other  discoveries  of  a similar  kind.  We  have  now  no  reason  to 
conclude  that  we  have  as  yet  descried  the  utmost  boundaries  of 
the  solar  system;  since  a body  of  so  great  magnitude  has  been 
ascertained  to  exist,  and  to  prosecute  its  annual  course  around 
the  sun,  at  nearly  double  the  distance  of  Uranus.  If  there  be 
another  planet  or  more  beyond  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  the  obser- 
vations of  a number  of  years  upon  the  movements  of  this  body 
may  lead  to  a like  result  again,  and  to  bring  to  view  other 
spacious  orbs  which  have  hitherto  been  concealed  in  those  dis- 
tant regions  of  space.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the  Creator  crowns 
the  exertions  of  human  genius,  and  the  investigations  of  his 
works  with  success — by  opening  to  our  view  a more  expansive 
prospect  of  his  boundless  and  eternal  empire. 

THE  PLANET  ASTRJEA. 

This  planet  was  discovered  by  M.  Hencke,  of  Driessen,  in 
Prussia,  on  the  evening  of  the  8th  of  December,  1845.  It  ap- 
peared like  a star  of  the  9th  magnitude,  in  a place  where  before 
there  was  none.  Its  place  on  December  1 4th,  as  determined  by  Pro- 


382 


APPENDIX. 


fessor  Encke,  of  Berlin,  at  6 hours,  28  minutes,  was — right  ascen- 
sion, 64  degrees,  4 minutes,  53  seconds.  At  14  hours,  33  minutes, 
27  seconds,  its  right  ascension  in  time  was  4 hours,  16  minutes. 
Declination  north,  12  degrees,  39  minutes,  52  seconds.  Its 
motion  was  retrograde,  and  its  daily  amount,  as  determined 
from  the  observations  8 hours  apart,  was,  in  right  ascension, 
14  minutes,  21  seconds.  In  declination,  its  motion  was  quite 
insignificant.  This  moving  body  was  soon  afterwards  observed 
in  England,  by  Messrs.  South,  Airy,  and  others;  and  from  their 
observations,  and  those  of  foreign  astronomers,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  be  a planet  belonging  to  the  solar  system.  From  the 
notes  of  Astraea’s  position  given  by  Encke  and  Schumacher, 
M.  Faye,  a French  astronomer,  calculated  the  elements  of  its 


orbit,  which  are  as  follows: — 

deg.  min. 

Epoch  1845,  December  14 71  13.6 

Longitude  of  ascending  node  135  14.6 

Inclination  6 1.2 

Semidiameter  of  orbit  26.024 

Movement  Direct. 

Period  of  sidereal  revolution  4 years,  2 months. 


It  appears,  therefore,  that  Astraea  has  a certain  relation  to  the 
four  minor  planets  revolving  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  which 
were  discovered  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  of 
which  we  have  already  given  a short  description.  This  relation 
will  appear  at  once,  when  their  elements  are  compared,  as  in  the 
following  statement: — 


Vesta  ... 

Mean  distance 
from  the  sun. 

...  2.3678  ... 

Mean  period 
in  days. 

...  1325  ...., 

Inclination  of 
orbit. 

7°  8'  9" 

Juno 

...  2.6690  ... 

...  1592  ..... 

..  13  4 9 

Ceres  ... 

...  2.7672  ... 

...  1681  

..  10  37  26 

Pallas  ... 

...  2,7728 

...  1686  ..... 

..  34  34  55 

Astraea ... 

...  2.6024  ... 

...  1521  ..... 

6 12 

In  the  element  of  distance,  that  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is 
taken  as  a unit.  The  distance  of  Astraea  from  the  sun  is  to  that 
of  the  earth  as  2.6024  to  1.000,  or,  in  round  numbers,  as  26  to  10. 
It  follows  that  Astraea  revolves  round  the  sun  at  the  distance  of 
247,000,000  miles.  In  its  distance  and  period  of  revolution, 
Astraea  agrees  most  nearly  with  Juno;  in  inclination,  with 
Vesta. 


APPENDIX. 


383 


THE  PLANET  HEBE. 

The  brilliant  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune,  by  Adams  and 
Le  Verrier,  has  been  closely  followed  by  that  of  another,  which 
was  detected  by  M.  Hencke,  the  discoverer  of  Astraea.  On  the 
1st  of  July,  1847,  at  10h  45  m,  p.m.,  M.  Hencke,  of  Driessen, 
discovered  a second  star,  not  previously  marked  in  his  map,  of 
about  the  9th  degree  of  magnitude,  in  257°  6'  right  ascension, 
and  3°  40'  south  declination.  This  new  planet  was  observed  on 
the  5th  July,  from  the  observatory  at  Berlin,  in  the  meridian, 
and  in  the  great  refracting  telescope.  This  body  is  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  smaller  planets  between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
It  was  subsequently  observed  by  M.  Schumacher,  M.  Encke, 
M.  Rumker,  Mr.  Hind,  Professor  Challis,  Dr.  Peterson,  and 
Mr.  Lassel.  Mr.  Hind  has  computed  its  elements  as  follows: — 


Epoch  of  mean  anomaly,  July,  1847,  Greenwich  mean  time  283°  56'  54" 

Longitude  of  perihelion  8 17  24 

Ascending  node  137  25  35 

Inclination  15  2 56 

Eccentricity 2.38910 

Mean  diurnal  motion  886" 

Sidereal  period 4.004  years. 


From  these  statements,  it  appears  that  this  planet  comes 
between  Vesta  and  M.  Hencke’s  other  planet,  Astraea.  It  has 
been  named  Hebe , following  the  nomination  of  the  illustrious 
Gauss,  to  whom  the  office  was  delegated  by  Hencke. 


THE  PLANET  IRIS. 

On  the  night  of  Friday,  the  18th  of  August,  1847 — only 
about  six  weeks  after  the  discovery  of  Hebe — Mr.  Hind,  the 
astronomer  at  Mr.  Bishop’s  Observatory,  Regent’s-park,  London, 
discovered  an  asteroid,  which  he  believed  was  a new  planet 
belonging  to  the  group  between  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Subsequent 
observations  have  confirmed  the  accuracy  of  that  opinion,  and 
placed  beyond  doubt  this  further  triumph  of  English  astronomers. 
Mr.  Hind  has  since  favoured  the  scientific  world  with  the 
following  particulars  of  his  interesting  wanderer,  now  for  the 
first  time  regarded  as  belongingto  the  solar  system: — “In  addi- 
tion to  the  Berlin  maps,”  says  Mr.  Hind,  “ which  we  have  revised, 
and  in  some  instances  corrected — elliptical  charts  of  stars  down 
to  the  10th  magnitude  have  been  formed  for  some  of  the  hours 
of  right  ascension,  which  it  is  Mr.  Bishop’s  intention  to  publish 


384 


APPENDIX. 


as  soon  as  they  are  completed.  On  the  13th  August  I compared 
Wolf’s  map  with  the  heavens,  and  was  surprised  to  find  an 
unmarked  star  of  8.9  magnitude  in  a position  which  I examined 
June  22  and  July  31st,  without  any  note  being  made.  The 
mere  existence  of  a star  in  a position  where  before  there  was 
none  visible,  would  not  have  been  sufficient  to  satisfy  me  as  to  its 
nature,  because,  during  an  eight  months’  search,  I have  met  with 
very  many  variable  stars — a class  which  I believe  to  be  far  more 
numerous  than  is  generally  supposed.  But  on  employing  the 
wire  micrometer,  we  were  enabled  in  less  than  half  an  hour  to 
establish  its  motion,  and  thus  to  convince  ourselves  that  I had 
been  fortunate  enough  to  discover  a new  member  of  the  planetary 
system.  It  may  appear  to  many  rather  bold  to  announce  the 
existence  of  a new  planet  from  the  detection  of  so  small  an 
amount  of  motion  as  2/5  of  right  ascension;  but  such  is  the 
firm  mounting  of  the  large  refracting  telescope,  and  the  perfection 
of  the  micrometer,  (for  which  we  have  to  thank  Mr.  Dolland,)  that 
a far  smaller  change  would  have  been  sufficient  to  convince  us 
of  the  nature  of  the  object  in  question.”  The  following  are  all  the 
observations  yet  made: — 


Right  ascension  of  Iris. 

South  declination. 

hours 

min. 

sec. 

hours 

min.  sec. 

deg. 

min.  sec. 

August  13 

9 

39 

46 

...  19 

57  30  ... 

13 

27  21.5 

10 

37 

24 

...  19 

57  28  ... 

13 

27  27.6 

14 

9 

23 

58  . 

...  19 

56  38  ... 

13 

29  14 

15 

9 

0 

39 

...  19 

55  47  ... 

13 

31  4.3 

The  name  Iris  was  fixed  upon  by  Mr.  Bishop  as  an  appro- 
priate name  for  this  new  planet.  The  symbol  adopted  for  its 
designation  is  a semicircle  with  an  interior  star.  Mr.  Hind  says, 
“ This  planet  has  been  detected  in  a systematic  search,  instituted 
expressly  with  the  view  to  the  discovery  of  such  a body,  and 
commenced  in  November,  1846.  The  Berlin  maps  were  employed 
as  far  as  they  extend;  small  stars  of  the  9th  or  10th  magnitude, 
not  marked  in  maps,  being  inserted  from  time  to  time  as  they 
came  under  examination.” — Observations  of  Iris  have  likewise 
been  made  by  Professor  Challis,  Mr.  Graham,  Dr.  Peterson,  at 
Altona,  M.  Rumker  at  Hamburg,  and  Professor  Encke  at  Berlin. 

THE  PLANET  FLORA. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Iris,  Mr.  Hind,  at  Mr. 
Bishop’s  observatory,  South  Villa,  Regent’s-park,  has  discovered 
another — little  more  than  two  months  having  intervened  between 


THE  PLANET  FLORA. 


385 


the  discovery  of  the  two  bodies.  This  last  planet  was  dis- 
covered on  October  18th,  1847.  A few  hours’  observation  proved 
it  to  be  a new  planet — the  eighth  of  the  remarkable  group 
between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Since  the  epoch 
of  discovery,  the  brightness  of  the  planet  has  considerably  in- 
creased, and  now  equals  that  of  a star  of  the  eighth  magnitude. 
At  Mr.  Bishop’s  request,  Sir  John  Herschel  has  named  it  Flora, 
with  a flower  (a  rose)  for  the  symbol.  This  new  body  has  also 
been  observed  by  Professor  Challis,  E.  J.  Cooper,  Esq.,  Mr. 
Graham,  Professor  Encke,  Professor  Schumacher,  M.  Peterson, 
and  M.  Rumker. 

From  the  above  statements,  it  appears,  that  three  new  primary 
planets  have  been  brought  to  light  during  the  year  1847,  and 
that,  too,  within  less  than  the  space  of  four  months — the  first  of 
them  having  been  discovered  on  the  1st  of  July,  and  the  third 
on  the  18th  of  the  following  October.  It  is  remarkable,  too, 
that  they  all  belong  to  that  class  of  comparatively  small  bodies — 
sometimes  called  Asteroids,  which  move  between  the  orbits  of 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  are  all  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  These 
bodies  revolve  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  and  the 
times  of  their  revolution  round  the  sun  are  not  much  different 
from  each  other;  and  they  are  now  found  to  be  at  least  eight  in 
number.* 

A considerable  degree  of  mystery  hangs  over  the  facts  and 
circumstances  connected  with  these  bodies,  which  prevents  us 
from  forming  precise  and  definite  ideas  respecting  their  nature 
and  destination.  It  is  generally  supposed,  as  we  before  stated, 
(pp.  126  and  140,)  that  they  once  formed  the  component  parts 
of  a large  planet,  which  formerly  moved  near  the  regions  they 
now  occupy;  but  by  some  powerful  internal  force  had  been 
disrupted  into  a number  of  smaller  parts,  which  form  the 
bodies  that  have  been  lately  discovered.  How  many  of  these 
smaller  bodies  may  exist,  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine,  since 
others  may  still  be  discovered.  For,  it  would  be  as  unreasonable 
to  conclude  that  we  have  now  discovered  the  whole  of  them,  as  it 
would  have  been  when  only  two  or  three  of  them  were  discovered. 

* It  has  been  lately  reported  in  several  journals,  that  a ninth  planet, 
belonging  to  the  group  that  revolve  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  has  just  been 
discovered  by  Professor  Kaiser,  of  Leyden.  It  is  calculated  that  this  planet 
performs  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  three  years  and  eight  months.  It  has 
not  yet  received  a name. — July , 1848. 

c c 


386 


APPENDIX. 


Between  the  beginning  of  1801  and  1807,  four  of  these  orbs  have 
been  detected,  but  no  further  discovery  was  made  in  refer- 
ence to  them  till  December  1845,  when  Astraea  was  discovered. 
Various  inquiries  are  suggested  to  the  mind  when  contem- 
plating the  peculiar  phenomena  which  these  bodies  present.  If 
these  small  planets  once  formed  the  component  parts  of  a large 
planet,  was  that  planet  inhabited?  At  what  period  did  the 
disruption  take  place?  And,  if  inhabited,  what  was  the  fate 
of  its  inhabitants?  Were  they  entirely  destroyed  by  the  catas- 
trophe? or  did  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  fragments  fly  off 
along  with  that  portion  of  the  original  planet  which  they  occu- 
pied? Are  these  bodies  still  inhabited?  or,  are  they  flying  like 
shattered  masses  and  barren  deserts  through  the  voids  of  space? 
And  if  so,  are  they  ever  again  to  be  re-peopled?  To  such  inquiries, 
however,  no  satisfactory  answers  can  be  expected  while  we 
remain  in  the  present  state. 

If  we  do  not  admit  the  hypothesis  of  a large  planet  having 
been  disrupted,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  very  difficult  to  account 
for  the  present  position,  motions,  and  other  phenomena  of  these 
bodies,  so  very  different  from  the  harmony,  proportion,  and 
order  which  characterise  all  the  other  arrangements  of  the  solar 
system.  As  already  stated,  they  are  nearly  at  the  same  distances 
from  the  sun,  and  perform  their  revolutions  nearly  in  the  same 
periods;  their  orbits  are  more  eccentric,  and  have  a much 
greater  degree  of  inclination  than  those  of  the  other  planets; 
and,  what  is  very  singular  and  unaccountable,  their  orbits  cross 
each  other , so  that  there  is  a possibility  of  those  planets  impinging 
against  each  other.  These  circumstances  seem  to  indicate,  that 
the  bodies  in  question  are  not  in  that  order  and  arrangement  in 
which  we  should  suppose  an  All-wise  Creator  would  have  placed 
them  at  their  original  creation.  So  that,  whatever  view  we  take 
of  these  anomalous  orbs,  there  appears  to  us  something  inex- 
plicable, mysterious,  and  incomprehensible.  But  we  may  rest 
assured  that  their  present  state,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  in  full 
accordance  with  the  wisdom,  rectitude,  and  benevolence  of  the 
Moral  Governor  of  the  universe. 

We  may  now  conclude  these  reflections  by  a few  remarks 


APPENDIX. 


387 


On  the  rapid  progress  of  Astronomical  Discovery . 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century — a little  before  the 
telescope  was  applied  to  the  heavens — no  less  than  thirty-two 
moving  bodies,  unknown  before,  have  been  added  to  our  views 
of  the  planetary  system.  In  the  year  1608,  seven  bodies  only 
were  known  to  belong  to  our  system — namely,  the  sun  and  moon, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  In  1700,  there  had 
been  discovered,  in  addition  to  these,  eleven  moving  bodies — 
namely,  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  five  of  Saturn,  the  earth  itself, 
now  fully  recognised  as  a planet,  and  Halley’s  comet,  though  the 
prediction  had  not  been  verified.  In  1 800,  there  had  been  added 
nine — namely,  Uranus  and  its  six  satellites,  with  two  satellites  of 
Saturn.  These  were  all  discovered  by  the  late  Sir  W.  Herschel; 
and  this  celebrated  observer,  at  his  death,  left  the  solar  system 
half  as  large  again,  in  the  number  of  bodies,  as  he  found  it.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1800,  there  have  been  added  thirteen , — 
namely,  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Astrsea,  Hebe,  Iris,  Flora, 
and  the  new  planet  lately  discovered  by  Professor  Kaiser; 
Neptune,  the  satellite  discovered  by  Mr.  Lassel,  as  revolving 
around  the  planet  Neptune,  Encke’s  comet,  and  Biela’s  comet. 
All  these  discoveries  are  connected  solely  with  the  planetary 
system,  and  they  evidently  intimate  that  a wide  field  for  future 
discoveries  still  lies  before  us.  In  the  immense  regions  of  the 
starry  heavens,  many  sublime  discoveries  have  likewise  been 
made,  of  late  years,  in  reference  to  new  and  variable  stars,  double, 
triple,  and  quadruple  stars,  and  the  numerous  nebulae  dispersed 
throughout  different  regions  of  the  heavens,  of  which,  at  present, 
we  cannot  enter  into  detail;  but  they  lead  us  to  conclude  that 
Astronomy  is  now  beginning  to  make  rapid  advances  in  its 
progress. 

Notwithstanding  the  discoveries  lately  made  in  the  solar 
system,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  heavens,  we  are  not  to  imagine 
that  we  have  yet  arrived  at  boundaries  in  creation  beyond 
which  we  cannot  pass.  Only  a few  years  have  yet  passed  since 
the  planet  Saturn  was  considered  as  the  utmost  boundary  of 
our  planetary  system,  whose  orbit  is  removed  900  millions  of 
miles  from  the  sun.  But  now,  planets  have  been  discovered  at 
double  and  triple  this  distance — at  eighteen  hundred  millions, 
and  at  three  thousand  millions  of  miles  from  the  central  lumi- 
nary; and,  at  such  immense  distances,  retained  in  their  orbits, 
and  guided  by  the  attractive  influence  of  the  sun.  The  planet 

c c 2 


388 


APPENDIX. 


Neptune  moves  in  an  orbit  five  thousand  seven  hundred  millions 
of  miles  in  diameter,  and  about  eighteen  thousand  millions  of 
miles  in  circumference;  and  were  a steam  carriage  to  move 
along  this  vast  circle,  at  the  rate  of  20  miles  an  hour,  it  would 
require  more  than  a hundred  thousand  years  before  it  could 
complete  the  vast  circuit. — As  we  have  no  reason  to  conclude 
that  we  have  yet  reached  the  utmost  bounds  of  our  system,  it 
is  not  at  all  improbable  that  planets  of  a large  size  may  exist 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  Neptune,  which  may  yet  be  discovered 
by  the  persevering  efforts  of  our  astronomers,  and  some  of  which 
may  never  be  visible  to  mortal  eyes.  It  will  now  be  more 
difficult  than  formerly  to  make  delineations  of  the  orbits  of  the 
planets,  when  they  are  intended  to  be  represented  in  the  relative 
proportions  of  their  distances  from  the  sun — unless  the  delinea- 
tions be  made  on  a very  large  scale;  for  otherwise  the  orbits  of 
Mars,  the  earth,  Venus,  and  Mercury  would  appear  so  close  to 
each  other  as  scarcely  to  be  distinguished. 

On  the  whole,  what  further  discoveries  may  yet  be  made  in 
the  celestial  regions  it  is  scarcely  for  us  to  anticipate.  But  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  those  who  devote  themselves  to 
celestial  observations,  and  in  proportion  to  the  improvements 
that  may  be  made  on  telescopes,  and  other  instruments  of  obser- 
vation, may  we  expect  that  still  more  brilliant  discoveries  will 
be  unfolded  to  our  view.  Much  will  depend  upon  the  extreme 
accuracy  with  which  the  stellar  regions  are  explored,  and  the 
minute  attention  that  is  given  to  the  least  motion  that  may  be 
apparent  in  any  star.  Had  this  been  particularly  attended  to, 
Neptune  would  have  been  discovered  more  than  half  a century 
ago.  It  is  now  ascertained  that  this  planet  was  seen  by  the 
celebrated  Lalande,  a French  astronomer,  in  May,  1795;  but 
by  doubting  the  accuracy  of  his  observation,  and  taking  it  for 
an  ordinary  fixed  star,  he  lost  the  honour  of  bringing  to  light  a 
new  constituent  of  the  solar  system.  He  observed  it  on  the 
8th  of  May,  and  noted  it  down  in  his  chart.  He  observed  it 
again  on  the  10th  of  May,  and  because  the  observations  did  not 
agree  as  to  the  exact  place  of  the  object,  he  rejected  his  obser- 
vation of  May  8th  as  inaccurate.  If,  instead  of  doubting  his 
observations,  he  had  watched  that  orb,  he  would  have  discovered 
its  motion,  and  consequently  ascertained  that  it  was  a planet. 
But  he  concluded  that  one  of  his  observations  was  wrong,  and 
that  he  would  blot  it  out;  and,  in  so  doing,  he  blotted  out  his 
name  from  the  honour  of  being  the  discoverer  of  a large  and  dis- 
tinguished planet  connected  with  the  solar  system. 


AMERICAN  ASTRONOMERS. 


389 


Few  discoveries  have  hitherto  been  made  by  astronomers  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic;  but  it  is  now  to  be  hoped  that 
American  astronomers  will,  ere  long,  be  instrumental  in  bringing 
to  light  some  new  discoveries  in  the  heavens,  since  observatories 
have  been  lately  erected  in  that  country,  and  telescopic  instru- 
ments of  great  power  have  lately  been  imported  from  Europe. 
Professor  Mitchell,  of  Cincinnati,  has  been  furnished  with  an 
observatory,  and  an  excellent  telescope,  and  other  instruments  of 
observation,  and  he  has  been  requested  by  the  German  astro- 
nomer, Struve,  to  measure  all  the  double  and  multiple  stars 
south  of  the  equator — with  which  requisition  it  is  hoped  he  will 
soon  comply.  It  is  also  confidently  expected  that  Mr.  Bond,  of 
Cambridge,  State  of  Massachusetts,  will  follow  up  his  discovery 
of  analyzing  the  great  nebula  of  Orion  by  similar  discoveries  in 
the  nebulous  regions  of  the  heavens.  The  Great  Cambridge 
Achromatic  Telescope,  which  Mr.  Bond  uses,  is  an  instrument 
which  does  honour  to  the  Harvard  University,  and  to  the  United 
States.  It  was  procured  from  Munich,  in  Germany,  at  a vast 
expense,  and  its  performance  is  such  as  to  equal,  if  not  surpass, 
any  achromatic  telescope  yet  existing.  The  object  glass  of  this 
instrument  is  15  inches  of  clear  diameter,  its  focal  length  is  23 
feet,  arid  the  length  of  the  instrument,  including  the  sliding  tube, 
about  24  feet.  The  pier  on  which  it  rests  is  of  masonry,  con- 
sisting of  blocks  of  granite.  It  is  the  frustrum  of  a cone  20  feet 
of  diameter  at  the  base,  and  10  at  the  top,  and  40  feet  in  height, 
and  its  base  is  20  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  On  its 
flat  and  level  top  is  placed  the  pedestal  to  which  the  telescope  is 
attached.  It  is  a large  block  of  granite,  13  tons  in  weight, 
adapted  to  the  equatorial  apparatus,  consisting  of  ponderous 
masses  of  brass,  weighing,  with  the  tube,  about  4 tons;  yet  so 
perfectly  is  friction  avoided,  that  a child  can  give  it  motion,  and 
direct  it  to  any  point  in  the  heavens.  To  counteract  the  apparent 
diurnal  motion  of  the  celestial  objects — which  is  continually 
throwing  them  out  of  the  fields  of  ordinary  telescopes — a clock- 
work is  attached  to  the  equatorial  axis,  so  constructed  as  to  give 
the  instrument  a quiet  sidereal  motion,  contrary  to  the  motion 
of  the  earth.  Its  effect  is  to  keep  the  object  for  several  hours 
constantly  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view. 

Mr.  Mitchell  gives  the  following  description  of  some  views 
which  he  obtained  with  this  instrument.  The  first  object  to 
which  the  telescope  was  directed  was  the  planet  Venus,  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  being  then  daylight;  and  though  obscured  by 
daylight,  it  met  the  eye  with  a glare.  The  telescope  was  then 


390 


APPENDIX. 


turned  to  the  moon.  The  first  object  that  met  his  eye  was  the 
yawning  gulf  Endymion,  wide,  deep,  and  dark;  the  line  of  illu- 
mination leaped  from  side  to  side,  leaving  a frightful  gap  between. 
The  mountains  stood  out  in  bold  relief,  casting  shadows  as -black 
as  midnight.  The  double  star,  Gamma  Coronae,  was  well  sepa- 
rated with  a power  of  720.  Sir  J.  Herschel,  in  1832,  could  not 
separate  this  star  with  his  20  feet  reflector.  The  point  of  faint 
light  near  a Capricorni , which  Sir  J.  Herschel  supposes  shines 
with  reflected  light,  was  boldly  exhibited  by  this  instrument. 
The  companion  of  Antares,  though  obscured  by  haze,  was  very 
conspicuous.  The  double  star,  rj  Corona , which  has  set  at 
defiance  most  telescopes,  yielded  to  the  power  of  this  telescope. 
The  nebula  in  Lyra  appeared  to  be  a rim  or  wreath  of  stars; 
its  centre  was  no  longer  dark,  but  filled  with  stars.  The  Dumb 
Bell  nebula  was  reached,  and  found  to  consist  of  closely-packed 
stars.  The  cluster  in  Hercules  exhibited  great  brilliancy  and 
beauty.  The  star  a Lyra  exhibited  a most  dazzling  brightness. 
The  powers  employed  in  these  observations  ranged  from  250 
to  750.  The  instrument  is  furnished  with  eye-pieces,  magnify- 
ing two  thousand  times.  Among  the  results  anticipated  from 
this  instrument,  is  the  detection  of  planets  revolving  about  the 
fixed  stars. 


BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARL  OF  ROSSE’S  LARGE 
REFLECTING  TELESCOPES. 

The  Earl  of  Rosse  stands  at  the  head  of  his  order  in  respect  of 
his  scientific  and  mechanical  acquirements.  He  has  set  a bright 
example  to  his  compeers  of  the  dignity  and  utility  of  philosophical 
studies  and  investigations,  and  of  the  aids  they  might  render  to 
the  progress  of  science  were  their  wealth  and  pursuits  directed 
in  a proper  channel.  His  lordship  has  gained  for  himself  a name 
of  high  celebrity;  his  great  talents  have  been  combined  with 
great  perseverance,  and  directed  by  sound  good  sense.  He 
appears  to  love  science  for  its  own  sake;  and  apparently  without 
the  least  desire  for  the  applause  of  the  world,  he  had  been 
working  silently  and  for  himself  for  many  years,  till  the  magni- 
tude of  the  results  he  produced  forced  themselves  on  the  atten- 
tion of  philosophers  and  the  applause  of  the  world.  One  great 


PARSONSTOWN  CASTLE,  THE  SEAT  OF  THE  EARL  OF  ROSSE. 


LORD  ROSSES  TELESCOPES. 


393 


object  which  his  lordship  long  had  in  view,  was  to  construct 
large  metallic  reflecting  specula,  in  order  to  improve  reflecting 
telescopes,  and  to  bring  them,  if  possible,  to  their  highest  point 
of  perfection,  and  numerous  and  expensive  were  the  experi- 
ments he  performed  for  this  purpose. 

Lord  Rosse’s  mansion,  Parsonstown  Castle,  of  which  the  accom- 
panying engraving  is  a representation,  is  situated  in  King’s 
County,  Ireland,  about  eighty-seven  English  miles  from  the  city 
of  Dublin.  At  a little  distance  from  this  mansion  is  his  lordship’s 
workshop , consisting  of  a considerable  mass  of  building,  and 
numerous  apartments  and  conveniences  for  performing  the  mul- 
tifarious operations  connected  with  casting,  grinding,  polishing, 
and  annealing  the  specula,  and  all  the  other  mechanical  processes 
and  operations.  In  the  tower  of  the  work-shop,  which  is  carried 
up  to  a considerable  height,  there  is  a long  pole , running  up 
from  the  top.  On  the  summit  of  this  is  a little  cross-bar,  to 
which  is  attached  a small  dial  of  a watch.  It  is  directly  under 
this  that  the  speculum  is  polished.  The  body  of  the  tower 
serves  as  a tube,  and  the  dial  is  reflected  in  the  speculum  below; 
the  polishing  is  continued  till  the  picture  produced  is  absolutely 
perfect.  When  this  process  is  finished,  the  speculum  is  ready 
for  the  tube. 

About  the  year  1839,  Lord  Rosse  constructed  a reflector  with  a 
speculum  3 feet  in  diameter,  and  27  feet  focal  distance,  which  was 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  accurate  and  powerful  instruments 
that  had  ever  been  made,  not  excepting  even  Sir  William  Her- 
schel’s  forty-feet  reflector.  Of  the  performance  of  this  instrument, 
those  who  have  seen  it  and  looked  through  it,  speak  in  terms  of 
high  admiration.  In  speaking  of  this  instrument,  Dr.  Robinson, 
the  Armagh  astronomer,  assumes  a tone  of  enthusiasm,  and  even 
of  sublimity.  By  means  of  this  exquisite  instrument,  Dr. 
Robinson  and  Sir  James  South,  in  the  intervals  of  rather  an 
unfavourable  night,  saw  several  new  stars,  and  corrected 
numerous  errors  of  other  observers;  and  those  nebulae,  hitherto 
regarded  as  “ coalescing  systems,”  appeared,  when  tested  by  the 
3 feet  speculum,  to  be  very  far  from  presenting  a globular  ap- 
pearance; numerous  offshoots  and  appendages,  invisible  by  other 
telescopes,  appearing  in  all  directions,  radiating  from  their  edges. 
This  telescope  is  erected  on  the  lawn  before  the  castle,  of  which  we 
have  given  a representation  in  the  next  page.  Notwithstanding 
its  weight  and  size,  it  is  elevated  and  depressed  with  the  greatest 
ease,  being  accurately  balanced  by  heavy  weights  over  pulleys, 


894 


APPENDIX. 


THE  TELESCOPE  ON  THE  LAWN. 


and  it  is  turned  to  any  part  of  the  heavens  by  means  of  wheels 
running  on  a graduated  iron  circle  fixed  in  the  ground.  The 
casting,  grinding,  and  polishing  of  this  speculum,  and  the 
machinery  of  the  tube  and  its  suspension,  were  all  accomplished 
under  his  lordship’s  eye,  and  by  his  own  direction.  In  the 
account  of  this  telescope,  published  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1840,  his  lordship  speaks  of  the  possibility  of  a 
speculum  six  feet  in  diameter  being  cast.  At  that  time  it  was 
considered  by  some  as  little  short  of  a chimera  to  attempt  the 
construction  of  such  a monstrous  instrument;  but  the  idea  no 
sooner  occurred  to  this  ingenious  and  persevering  nobleman 


lord  rosse’s  telescopes.  305 

« 

than  he  determined  to  put  it  to  the  test,  and  the  result  has  been 
attended  with  complete  success. 

Not  long  afterwards,  this  projected  speculum,  6 feet  in  diameter, 
was  actually  realized.  It  was  cast  in  April,  1842;  and  with  all 
the  multifarious  operations  connected  with  it,  was  accomplished 
without  any  accident,  and  with  a degree  of  success  beyond 
expectation.  This  speculum  has  a reflecting  surface  of  4071 
square  inches,  while  that  of  Sir  William  Herschel’s  40  feet  tele- 
scope had  only  1811  square  inches  on  its  polished  surface;  so 
that  the  quantity  of  light  reflected  from  this  speculum  is  consi- 
derably more  than  double  that  of  Herschel’s  largest  reflector, 
and  it  is  chiefly  on  the  quantity  of  light,  either  transmitted  or 
reflected,  that  the  power  of  telescopes  to  penetrate  into  space 
depends.  This  speculum  is  above  6 feet  diameter,  5 ^ inches 
thick  at  the  edges,  and  5 inches  at  the  centre,  and  its  weight  is 
above  3 tons,  or  six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty  pounds 
avoirdupois.  Its  composition  is  copper  and  tin,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  126  parts  of  copper  to  57^  of  tin.  The  price  of  the 
copper  alone  was  reckoned  at  above  a hundred  pounds.  There 
were  three  large  furnaces  employed,  heated  with  turf  fires.  One 
crucible,  holding  one  ton  of  metal,  was  placed  in  each,  and  for 
nineteen  hours  subjected  to  an  intense  heat.  The  crucibles  were 
lifted  by  means  of  an  immense  crane  from  their  furnaces;  and  at 
nine  o’clock  on  the  evening  of  the  18th  of  April,  1842,  without 
accident  or  delay,  they  simultaneously  poured  forth  their  glowing 
contents  — a burning  mass  of  fluid  matter,  hissing,  heaving, 
pitching  itself  about  for  a minute,  and  then  calmly  settling  into 
a monument  of  man’s  industry  for  ever.  Numerous  spectators 
were  witnesses  of  this  scene,  who  admired  the  entire  composure 
of  Lord  Rosse’s  manner  during  this  critical  period  of  the  opera- 
tion. When  the  metal  had  settled,  it  was  drawn  by  a capstan 
into  a heated  oven,  and  built  in,  where  it  remained  for  sixteen 
weeks,  annealing;  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  was  found  without 
spot  or  blemish,  to  the  great  joy  of  its  projector  and  maker. 

The  next  operation  was  the  grinding  and  polishing.  The 
speculum  was  placed  in  water,  and  turned  round  by  the  steam 
engine,  while  the  polisher  had  a horizontal  motion  given  by  the 
same  means,  and  it  required  six  weeks  to  grind  it  to  a fair  sur- 
face. The  polishing  was  accomplished  in  little  more  than  six 
hours.  A tube  was  next  prepared  for  it — and  such  a tube  was 
perhaps  never  before  constructed.  It  is  52  feet  long,  and  7 feet 
diameter,  formed  of  wood  and  hooped  with  iron.  This  tube  is 


396 


APPENDIX. 


sufficient  to  hold  a hundred  men  in  its  inside,  standing  upright. 
It  is  fixed  to  mason-work  in  the  ground,  to  a large  universal 
hinge,  which  allows  it  to  turn  in  all  directions.  At  12  feet 
distant  on  each  side  a wall  is  built,  72  feet  long,  48  feet  high  on 
the  outer  side,  and  56  on  the  inner;  the  walls  being  24  feet 
distant  from  each  other,  and  lying  exactly  in  the  meridional 
line.  When  directed  to  the  south,  the  tube  may  be  lowered 
till  it  become  almost  horizontal;  but,  when  pointed  to  the 
north,  it  only  falls  till  it  is  parallel  to  the  earth’s  axis,  pointing 
then  to  the  pole  of  the  heavens.  Its  lateral  movements  take 
place  only  from  wall  to  wall,  and  this  commands  a view  for  half 
an  hour  on  each  side  of  the  meridian.  It  is  ultimately  intended 
to  connect  with  the  tube -end  galleries  machinery  which  shall 
give  an  automaton  movement,  so  that  the  telescope  shall  be  used 
as  an  equatorial  instrument.  The  tube  and  speculum,  including 
the  bed  on  which  the  speculum  rests,  w^eigh  about  15  tons.  The 
expense  incurred  by  his  lordship  in  the  erection  of  this  noble 
instrument  was  not  less  than  twelve  thousand  pounds,  besides 
the  money  expended  in  the  construction  of  the  telescope  3 feet 
diameter,  and  27  feet  long. 

The  following  is  a representation  of  this  great  telescope, 
generally  called  “ Lord  Rosse’s  Monster  Telescope along 


LORD  ROSSE’S  TELESCOPES. 


397 


with  part  of  the  buildings  with  which  it  is  connected.  In  the 
interior  face  of  the  eastern  wall,  a very  strong  iron  arc,  of  about 
43  feet  radius,  is  firmly  fixed,  provided  with  adjustments  by  which 
its  surface,  facing  the  telescope,  may  be  set  very  accurately  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian.  On  this  bar  lines  are  drawn,  the  interval 
between  any  adjoining  two  of  which  corresponds  to  one  minute 
of  time  on  the  equator.  Although  the  apparatus  weighs  about 
15  tons,  the  instrument  is  raised  by  two  men  with  great  facility, 
being  counterpoised  in  every  direction.  The  observer,  when  at 
work,  stands  on  one  of  four  galleries,  the  three  highest  of  which 
are  drawn  out  from  the  western  wall,  while  the  fourth  or  lowest 
has  for  its  base  an  elevating  platform,  along  the  horizontal 
surface  of  which  a gallery  slides  from  wall  to  wall  by  a machi- 
nery within  the  observer’s  reach,  but  which  a child  may  work. 
When  the  telescope  is  about  half  an  hour  east  of  the  meridian, 
the  galleries  hanging  over  the  gap  between  the  walls,  present  to 
a spectator  below  an  appearance  somewhat  dangerous;  yet  the 
observer,  with  common  prudence,  is  as  safe  as  on  the  ground, 
and  each  of  the  galleries  can  be  drawn  from  the  wall  to  the  side 
of  the  telescope  so  readily,  that  the  observer  needs  no  one  else 
to  move  it  for  him.  The  above  figure  represents  only  the  upper 
part  of  the  tube  of  the  telescope,  at  which  the  observer  stands 
when  making  his  observations.  He  looks  in  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  side  of  the  tube,  the  telescope  being  of  the  Newtonian 
form;  but  it  is  proposed  to  throw  aside  the  plain  speculum  in 
the  inside  of  the  tube  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  front  view , when  the 
observer  will  look  directly  down  the  tube  towards  the  face  of  the 
great  speculum  with  his  back  towards  the  object.  In  this  position 
he  will  sometimes  be  elevated  between  50  and  60  feet  above  the 
ground. 

This  instrument  will  doubtless  be  the  means  of  making 
important  discoveries  in  the  heavens;  but  as  it  has  been  only 
recently  finished,  sufficient  time  has  not  yet  elapsed  for  making 
numerous  observations.  Several  discoveries  have,  however,  been 
already  made,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  nebulas.  Several 
nebulae  which  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  only  immense  masses 
of  luminous  substances,  have  been  resolved  into  starry  systems. 
The  circular  nebula  of  Lyra  has  been  discovered  to  be  a mighty 
galaxy,  with  parts  of  its  stars  attached  to  its  mass  in  irregular 
filaments  and  streams.  A spiral  nebula  has  been  discovered  in 
the  Dog's  Ear , so  strange  and  complex,  that  there  is  nothing  to 
which  it  can  be  likened,  except  a scroll  gradually  unfolding,  or 


398 


APPENDIX. 


the  evolution  of  a gigantic  shell.  Some  of  those  nebulas  which 
formerly  appeared  as  nearly  circular  masses,  have  now  been 
described  to  have  numerous  luminous  filaments,  streaming  out  in 
every  direction,  and  interwoven  with  streams  of  stars.  Even 
the  great  nebula  of  Orion  has  been  partly  analyzed,  which 
no  previous  telescope  was  able  to  accomplish.  Sir  James  South, 
when  observing  with  this  telescope,  remarks,  “ that  he  saw  about 
30  nebulae  or  more,  the  most  of  which  the  telescope  removed 
from  the  list  of  nebulae  to  that  of  clusters , while  some  of  these 
latter,  particularly  the  5th  of  Messier,  exhibited  a sidereal  picture, 
such  as  man  never  before  had  seen,  and  which,  for  its  magnifi- 
cence, baffles  ail  description.”  Numerous  nebulae  besides  the 
above  have  been  observed,  and  ascertained  to  consist  of  starry 
systems,  which  have  thus  opened  to  our  contemplation  a more  ex- 
pansive view  of  the  wonders  of  the  heavens,  and  the  vast  extent 
of  creation.  Nothing  can  be  more  memorable  and  interesting 
than  the  conversion  of  those  dim  streaks  of  light  into  shining  and 
rolling  orbs — suns  and  the  centres  of  systems,  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands in  number,  evolved,  as  it  were,  from  small  dusky  spots 
invisible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  every  spot  containing  a scene 
more  splendid  than  the  whole  of  our  starry  sky  as  seen  by  the 
naked  eye.  To  a common  observer,  a dim  and  almost  undistin- 
guishable  spot  in  the  heavens  transformed  by  the  telescope  into 
a number  of  stars,  may  appear  a matter  of  comparatively  small 
moment;  but  it  vastly  extends  our  conceptions  of  the  power  and 
glory  of  the  Eternal  Mind,  and  the  extent  and  grandeur  of  that 
empire  over  which  the  Almighty  presides.  For  several  hundreds 
of  nebulae  have  been  observed  throughout  the  heavens,  and  we 
have  now  reason  to  believe  that  each  of  them  is  composed  of 
thousands  of  suns  and  systems.  As  this  noble  instrument  has 
already  brought  such  sublime  objects  to  light,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  it  will  hereafter  be  the  means  of  disclosing 
to  our  view  scenes  and  objects  which  have  never  yet  been  anti- 
cipated. 

Lord  Rosse  certainly  deserves  the  thanks  of  the  whole  scientific 
world,  on  account  of  the  skill  he  has  displayed,  and  the  wealth 
he  has  expended  in  the  construction  of  the  largest  telescope  in 
the  world , and  the  example  he  has  set  to  his  compeers  of  the 
dignity  and  utility  of  scientific  pursuits.  His  lordship  is  at  the 
same  time  a gentleman  distinguished  for  his  urbanity,  humility, 
and  general  benevolence,  and  beloved  by  all  his  neighbours  and 
dependants.  His  lady,  the  Countess  of  Rosse,  is  also  distinguished 


LORD  ROSSE’S  TELESCOPES. 


399 


for  her  many  excellent  moral  qualities.  She  has  with  the  most 
exquisite  taste  improved  and  made  delightful  the  grounds  about 
the  castle,  and  freely  opens  them  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
surrounding  inhabitants.  She  has  made  the  town  the  residence 
of  all  who  can  command  the  means,  and  the  envy  of  those  who 
cannot.  She  has  raised  the  tone  of  its  society,  and  has  taken 
the  most  lively  interest  in  the  poor,  and  is  constantly  improving 
and  changing  in  order  to  afford  them  work.  The  consequence 
is,  that  she  is  universally  esteemed  and  looked  up  to,  and  her 
town  is  almost  free  from  the  discontent  and  distress  so  rife  in 
other  places,  particularly  in  Ireland. 


ADDITIONAL  PARTICULARS. 

Another  Planet  supposed  to  he  not  yet  discovered . 

In  the  sitting  of  the  Academy  of  Paris,  on  the  29th  August,  1848, 
M.  Babinet  made  a communication  respecting  the  planet  Neptune, 
generally  called  Le  Verrier’s  planet.  But  it  appears  from  the 
communication  of  Babinet,  that  this  is  not  the  planet  of 
Le  Yerrier.  He  had  placed  his  planet  at  a distance  from  the 
sun  equal  to  36  times  the  limit  of  the  terrestrial  orbit.  Neptune 
revolves  at  a distance  equal  to  30  times  of  these  limits,  which 
makes  a difference  of  nearly  200  millions  of  leagues.  M.  Le 
Yerrier  had  assigned  to  his  planet  a body  equal  to  38  times 
that  of  the  earth,  but  Neptune  has  only  one-third  of  this  volume. 
Le  Yerrier  had  stated  the  revolution  of  his  planet  round  the  sun 
to  take  place  in  217  years,  Neptune  performs  its  revolution  in 
about  170  years.  Therefore  M.  Babinet  infers  that  Neptune  is 
not  Le  Yerrier’s  planet,  and  that  all  his  theory,  as  regards  that 
planet,  falls  to  the  ground.  He  says,  M.  Le  Yerrier  may  find 
another  planet,  but  it  will  not  answer  the  calculations  he  has 
made  for  Neptune.  In  the  sitting  of  the  Academy  on  the 
14th  of  September,  M.  Le  Yerrier  noticed  the  communication  of 
M.  Babinet,  and,  to  a great  extent,  admitted  his  own  error. 
The  probability,  therefore,  is,  that  there  is  another  planet  exist- 
ing more  nearly  corresponding  to  Le  Verrier’s  calculations,  and 
which  still  remains  undiscovered. 


400 


APPENDIX. 


The  Cincinnati  Equatorial  Achromatic  Telescope . 

The  foundation  of  the  Cincinnati  Observatory  was  laid  on  the 
9th  of  November,  1843,  by  the  late  John  Quincy  Adams.  Its 
Great  Achromatic  Telescope  is  nearly  18  feet  long,  and  its 
object  glass  is  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  composed  of  two 
lenses,  the  one  crown,  and  the  other  flint  glass.  It  is  mounted 
on  equatorial  machinery,  accompanied  with  clock-work.  Its 
magnifying  powers  range  from  100  to  1400  times,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  object  under  examination.  The  instrument 
with  its  machinery  weighs  about  2500  pounds;  but  such  is  the 
arrangement,  that  it  can  be  regulated  to  move  the  entire  instru- 
ment with  the  exact  velocity  of  any  heavenly  body.  This 
enormous  instrument  is  moved  with  so  much  ease,  that  a child 
of  a year  old  (says  Mr.  Mitchell)  may  exert  strength  enough  to 
direct  it  to  any  point  in  the  heavens.  This  exquisite  delicacy 
of  motion  is  obtained  by  a complete  system  of  friction  rollers 
and  counterpoises,  so  admirably  contrived,  that  no  rubbing 
between  surfaces  in  contact  exists  in  any  part  of  the  instrument. 
Professor  Mitchell,  to  whom  we  formerly  alluded,  is  the  superin- 
tendent and  director  of  this  Observatory,  which  was  reared  by 
subscription. 

Discovery  of  the  Eighth  Satellite  of  Saturn . — Mr.  W.  Lassell, 
the  astronomer  of  Liverpool,  has  lately  announced  the  discovery 
of  an  eighth  satellite  of  the  planet  Saturn.  Its  orbit,  he  says, 
lies  between  Titan  and  Impetus , (two  of  the  satellites  already 
known,)  and  may  well  tend  to  fill  up  the  large  interval  existing 
there.  The  reason  why  this  satellite  has  hitherto  escaped  detec- 
tion may  be  its  extreme  faintness,  which  is  certainly  not  less 
than  that  of  Memas , the  closest  of  all  Saturn’s  known  satellites. 
The  American  astronomers  have  already  detected  this  satellite. 


September,  1848. 


INDEX 


A. 

PAGE 

Absurdity  of  supposing  the  heavens  to  move  round  the  earth  ...  20 — 23 

Account  of  late  discoveries  in  reference  to  the  planetary  system  ...  376 

Altair,  its  position  10 

Animated  beings  occupy  every  part  of  nature 367 

Their  immense  multitude 368 

Argument  from,  for  a plurality  of  worlds  369 

Apathy  of  mankind  in  reference  to  celestial  phenomena  6 — 9 

Aphelion  of  the  planetary  orbits  61 

Apparent  motions  of  the  starry  heavens 10 — 18 

Conclusions  deduced  from 18 

Apsides , line  of  the  61 

Arcturus  11 

Arguments  to  prove  the  earth’s  diurnal  motion  19 — 24 

In  support  of  the  earth’s  annual  motion 39 — 49 

For  a plurality  of  worlds  373 

Astraea,  the  planet  381 

Astronomers,  their  accuracy  in  predicting  the  returns  of  eclipses, 

comets,  occultations,  &c 306 — 308 

Astronomical  discovery,  progress  of. 387 

Astronomical  terms  explained  61,  62 

Astronomy,  its  objects  and  sublime  references  1,2 

Ignorance  of,  in  former  ages  2 — 4 

Discoveries  in,  by  the  telescope 4 

What  should  be  its  grand  object  272 

Astronomy  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon  326 

Atmosphere  of  the  earth,  its  operations  and  uses 95 

Of  Mars,  its  density,  &c 119 

Atmospheres  of  the  planets  78,  130,  131,  162,  249,  355 

Axis  of  the  planetary  organs,  transverse  and  conjugate  60 


B. 

Belts  of  Jupiter,  their  diversified  appearances... 

Opinions  respecting  their  nature  

Possibility  of  bright  belts  around  this  planet 

Various  views  of 

Bianchini’s  observations  on  Venus  


C. 

Capella,  how  situated 

Cassini’s  observations  on  Venus 

Account  of  its  supposed  satellite 

D D 


...153 — 156 
...155—157 

157 

154 

74 


10 

74 

80 


402 


INDEX. 


Cassini’s  observations  on  the  spots  of  Jupiter 

Discovery  of  four  satellites  of  Saturn  

Celestial  sphere,  measures  of  the  

Ceres , history  of  its  discovery 

Its  period,  distance,  magnitude,  and  atmosphere 

Its  celestial  scenery  

Clouds  in  the  atmosphere  of  Mars  

Colour,  its  necessity  and  utility 

Provision  for  its  diffusion  in  the  planets 

Continents,  eastern  and  western,  their  extent,  &c — 
Probability  of  their  having  been  conjoined 
Copernican  system,  its  introduction  an  important  era 

Arrangement  of  the  planets  in  the  

Copernicus,  sketch  of  his  life  and  astronomical  labours 
His  answer  to  an  objection  against  his  system... 
Creation,  ultimate  design  of  


PAGE 

...  150 
...  266 
28—30 
...  125 
...  129 
...  314 
...  121 
...  357 
...  357 
...  93 

...  93 

...  36 

...  37 

34—36 
...  46 

...  345 


D. 

Day  observations  on  Venus,  by  the  author 
Degrees,  minutes,  &c.,  how  expressed 


69,  78,  79 
29 


How  their  number  may  be  ascertained  in  the  heavens  by  the  eye...  30 


23—48 


Deity,  arrangements  inconsistent  with  his  wisdom 

His  operations  in  the  material  world  intended  to  produce  a 

moral  effect 

His  perfections  displayed  in  the  planetary  system 

Characteristic  of  his  plans  and  operations  

His  omnipotence  illustrated  

His  wisdom  in  the  arrangements  of  the  solar  system 

His  benevolence  towards  other  worlds  

Has  an  end  in  view  in  all  his  arrangements  

Displays  intelligence  and  wisdom  in  all  his  contrivances 

His  goodness  of  a communicative  nature 

His  perfections  and  grandeur  displayed  in  the  rings  of 

Saturn 175,  176,  182 

Distance  of  the  moon,  how  determined  ...  302 

Distances,  not  distinguished  by  the  eye,  exemplified  291 

Of  the  heavenly  bodies,  how  determined 290,  304 

General  remarks  respecting  304,  308 

Diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  arguments  to  prove  19 — 24 

Divine  government,  its  principles,  the  same  throughout  the  universe  ...  139 


140 

...271—284 

281 

...272—275 
...275—281 
...283,  284 

359 

362 

370 


E. 

Earth,  more  rational  to  suppose  its  motion  than  that  of  the  sun 39 

No  difficulty  in  conceiving  it  to  move  41 

Its  motion  a sublime  object  of  contemplation 49 

Considered  as  a planet  89 

Its  spheroidal  figure,  and  the  observations  by  which  it  was 

determined  90 — 92 

General  aspect  of  its  surface  92 

Its  appearance  as  viewed  from  the  heavens  96,  97 

Its  internal  structure 97 


INDEX. 


403 


Earth,  changes  which  have  happened  in  its  constitution 

Its  density,  and  how  ascertained  

Its  variety  of  seasons  particularly  illustrated 

Its  seasons  different  from  what  they  originally  were 
How  its  seasons  and  climates  might  be  meliorated  ...  . 

Its  tropical  and  sidereal  year,  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  &c. 

Its  motion  not  uniform  

How  it  appears  in  the  firmament  of  Mercury 

Its  appearance  in  the  sky  of  Mars  

Its  appearance  in  the  sky  of  Venus 

How  it  appears  in  the  firmament  of  the  moon 

What  light  it  throws  on  the  moon  

Its  rotation,  how  perceived  in  the  moon 

Aspects  of  its  polar  and  equatorial  regions  from  the  moo 

Its  bulk  compared  with  the  rings  of  Saturn  

An  atom  in  creation,  compared  with  other  globes 

Superficial  contents,  and  quantity  of  water  in  its  ocean.. 

Eccentricity  of  the  planetary  orbits 

Eclipses  of  the  sun  to  the  lunar  inhabitants  

Of  the  sun  and  moon,  their  causes  294, 

Conclusions  from,  respecting  the  magnitudes  of  the  sun  and  moon 
Ecliptic,  plane  of  the 


PAGE 

98 

99 

...100—106 

106 

106,  107 

107 

108 

310 

313 

311 

...321,  322 

323 

323 

a 324 

174,  288,  290 

315 

94 

61 

325 

295 
295 
62 


F. 

Final  causes  of  the  objects  and  contrivances  in  the  material  world  ...  360 

Flora,  the  planet 384 

Foci  of  the  planetary  orbits  61 


G. 

Galileo  discovers  the  ring  of  Saturn  and  the  moons  of  Jupiter  ...169,  258 

Goodness  of  the  Deity  displayed  in  the  solar  system  281 — 284 

Extends  over  all  his  works 284 

Its  communicative  nature 370 

Gravitation  connects  all  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system 352 

Gravity  of  bodies  at  the  equator  and  at  the  poles 107 

On  the  surface  of  Jupiter 150 


H. 


Heat,  not  altogether  dependent  on  a planet’s  distance  from 

the  sun 

Hebe,  the  planet 

Heights  and  distances  of  objects,  how  determined 

Herschel,  Sir  W.,  his  observations  on  Mars 

On  Ceres  and  Pallas  

On  the  belts  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  

On  the  rings  of  Saturn  

On  the  solar  spots  

On  the  polar  circle  of  Mars  

On  the  atmosphere  of  Mars  

Discovers  the  planet  Uranus  

Herschel,  Sir  John,  observations  on  the  rings  of  Saturn 

D D 2 


56,  57,  195 

383 

...300—303 
...117,  120 
...130,  131 
...165,  216 

171 

213 

119 

120 

188 

...171,  176 


404 


INDEX. 


Huygens  investigates  the  figure  of  the  earth  ... 
Discovers  the  fourth  satellite  of  Saturn  ... 

I. 

Intellectual  beings  people  the  planetary  globes 

Distinctions  between 

Gradations  in  the  scale  of 

Iris,  the  planet  

Isaiah,  xlv.  18,  illustrated 

J. 


PAGE 

91 

266 


371 

...371,  373 

372 

383 

344 


Juno , circumstances  which  led  to  its  discovery  126 

Its  distance,  period,  magnitude,  &c % ...  129 

Its  celestial  scenery  313 

Jupiter,  its  distance  and  period  of  revolution  149 

Its  diurnal  rotation,  rate  of  motion,  and  gravity  of  bodies  on  its 

surface 149 — 151 

Rapidity  of  the  bodies  in  its  firmament  149 — 151 

Its  magnitude  and  superficial  contents  152 

Discoveries  on,  by  the  telescope  152 

Its  moons  and  belts  152,  153 

Various  views  of  its  belts 153 — 156 

Opinions  respecting  the  nature  of  the  belts  155 — 157 

Possibility  of  bright  belts  or  rings  surrounding  this  planet  157 

Presents  a vast  field  for  investigation  157 

Permanent  spots  on,  history  of  their  discovery  158 

Peculiar  splendour  of  this  planet  159 

How  to  prosecute  future  discoveries  on  159 

Its  seasons,  proportion  of  light,  &c 160,  161 

Its  atmosphere,  figure,  density,  &c 162,  163 

Its  celestial  scenery  314 

Its  satellites.  (See  Satellites.) 257 — 265 

Its  magnitude  compared  with  that  of  the  sun 289 

Scenery  of  the  heavens  from  its  satellites 328 — 331 

L. 


Law  (Keppler’s)  of  the  planetary  motions  illustrated  39 

Light,  proportion  of,  at  the  extremes  of  the  solar  system  56 

Zodiacal,  its  phenomena  223 

Its  motion,  how  determined  264 

Provision  for  its  distribution  among  the  planets  357 


Proportion  of,  in  different  planets  54,  87,  123,  160,  164,  192 

Longitude,  how  determined  by  Jupiter’s  satellites -..  263 

Lunar  year,  how  determined  327 

Inhabitants,  their  astronomy  326 


M. 

Magnificence  and  grandeur  of  the  heavens  27 

Magnitude  of  the  planetary  system 284 — 290 

Of  the  celestial  bodies,  how  determined 290 — 304 

Mars,  its  gibbous  phase,  when  viewed  through  telescopes 110 

Motion  peculiar  to,  explained  110 — 113 

Its  distance,  motion,  and  eccentricity  of  orbit  1 13,  114 

Telescopic  views  of  its  surface  by  Cassini,  &c 114 


INDEX. 


405 


PAGE 

Mars,  telescopic  views  of  its  surface,  by  Maraldi,  Hook,  &c.  ...  116,  117 

Telescopic  views  of,  by  the  Author ...  117 

Bright  spot  at  its  polar  point  ...  118 

Its  atmosphere  119 

Why  it  is  difficult  to  perceive  it  in  the  day-time  120 

Conclusions  respecting  its  physical  constitution  120 

Probably  contains  land,  water,  clouds,  &c 120 

Variety  of  seasons  in 121 

Has  a certain  resemblance  to  the  earth  121 

Magnitude  and  extent  of  its  surface  122 

Whether  it  have  a satellite 122 

Proportion  of  light  on  its  surface  123 

Its  figure,  density,  &c 124 

Scenery  of  the  heavens  from  its  surface 312 

The  point  of  Aries  on  its  ecliptic  313 

Matter,  for  what  purpose  created  ...343 — 346 

Has  a necessary  relation  to  mind  369 

Measures  of  the  celestial  sphere  28 

Mercury  has  two  conjunctions,  but  no  opposition 42 

Its  greatest  elongation  52 

Best  mode  of  detecting  this  planet  52 

Its  phases,  transits,  and  periods  of  revolution 53 

Discoveries  on  its  surface  by  Schroeter 54 

Intensity  of  light  on  its  surface 54 

Apparent  size  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from  54 

Its  temperature  56 

Its  magnitude,  &c 57 

Rapid  motion  in  its  orbit 58 

Its  mass,  density,  eccentricity  of  orbit,  &c 58,  59 

Its  appearance  from  the  moon 325 

Scenery  of  the  heavens  in 310 

Meridian,  a degree  of  it  measured  within  the  arctic  circle  91 

Meteoric  stones,  various  instances  of  their  fall  141 — 145 

Their  characteristics  and  phenomena  141 — 145 

Are  not  projected  from  the  moon  146 

Their  probable  origin 147 

Why  the  earth  has  been  exposed  to  the  impulse  of  such  agents  ...  148 

Meteors,  the  November,  their  supposed  origin  225 

Moon,  its  apparent  motions  and  phases  described 226 — 229 

Its  periodical  and  synodical  revolution  229 

Appearance  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  95,  230,  321 

Its  rotation 230 

Its  opacity  231 

Its  distance  from  the  earth 232 

Its  eclipses,  inclination  of  orbit,  &c 233 

General  description  of  its  surface  234 

Its  mountains,  how  distinguished  235 

Various  classes  of  mountains  and  their  scenery  described  ...235 — 245 

Various  views  of  its  surface  238 — 244 

Its  caverns  described 244 — 245 

Whether  volcanoes  exist  in  it  246 

Whether  there  be  seas  on  its  surface 248 


406 


INDEX. 


Moon,  its  atmosphere 

Its  superficial  contents,  and  proportional  magnitude 

Whether  its  inhabitants  map  ever  be  discovered  

Pretended  discoveries  in  the  

Whether  it  be  possible  to  correspond  with  its  inhabitants 

Its  beneficial  influence  on  our  globe 

Its  distance  and  diameter,  how  determined  

Its  celestial  scenery  

Causes  of  its  peculiar  celestial  scenery  

Astronomy  of  its  inhabitants  

Moons  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  &c.  (See  Satellites .) 

Motions  of  the  planets  illustrate  the  power  of  the  Deity 

Real  and  apparent  

Celestial,  a sublime  object  of  contemplation 

Mountains  in  Mercury  

In  Venus 

In  the  Moon 

Their  grandeur  and  utility 

N. 

Neptune,  the  planet  

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  determines  the  earth’s  spheroidal  figure  ... 
Night  scenes  in  the  planets,  not  to  be  associated  with  gloom 
Nodes , ascending  and  descending  

O. 

Objects,  heights  and  distances  of,  how  determined 

Ocean,  its  depth,  extent,  and  quantity  of  water  

Olbers,  Dr.,  discovers  Pallas  and  Vesta 

Biographical  notices  of  

Omnipotence  of  the  Deity  displayed  in  the  solar  system 

Orbits  of  the  planets,  elliptical  figure  of  the  

Orbs  of  heaven  prove  the  existence  of  a Deity  

Orion,  how  it  may  be  distinguished 

How  its  belt  serves  as  a measure  of  degrees 

P. 

Pallas,  its  discovery  by  Olbers 

Its  period,  distance,  magnitude,  &c 

Its  celestial  scenery  

Parallax,  horizontal,  of  the  moon  

Of  the  stars,  probably  ascertained  at  Uranus 

Of  the  sun  

Nature  of,  explained 

Pendulums,  their  length  and  vibration  in  different  latitudes 

Perihelion,  of  the  planetary  orbits  

Planetary  system,  its  general  arrangement  

Its  magnitude  

Summary  view  of  the 

Displays  the  perfections  of  the  Deity 
Planets,  apparent  irregularity  of  their  motions 

Primary  and  secondary  

Their  conjunctions  and  oppositions 


PAGE 

249 

251 

...251—254 

254 

255 

...255—257 

...302—304 

...321—327 

327 

326 

...273—274 

24 

50 

54 

77 

...234 — 244 
354 


376 

91 

350 

62 


...  300,301 

94 

126 

127 

...272—275 

61 

271 

30 

30 


...  126 
...  131 
...  314 
299,  300 
...  319 
86,203 
...  298 
90,  107 
...  62 
34,  37 
34,  37 
...  285 
271—283 
31,  48 
...  40 

44,  45 


INDEX.  407 

PAGE 

Planets,  nearer  the  earth  at  one  time  than  at  another 45 

Appear  with  different  phases  45 

Their  direct  and  retrograde  motions 46 

Irregularity  of  their  motions  as  viewed  from  the  earth 47 

Times  in  which  they  would  fall  to  the  sun  59 

Form  of  their  orbits  61 

Their  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  illustrated  62 

Superior  and  inferior , their  distinctions 108 

Superior  (except  Mars)  have  no  variety  of  phases  110 

Their  direct,  stationary,  and  retrograde  motions  112 

Their  arcs  of  retrogradation,  & c 113 

Gravity  of  bodies  on  their  surfaces 168 

Their  attractive  influence  on  each  other 188 

Probability  that  others  may  yet  be  discovered  189 

By  what  means  new  planets  may  be  detected 197,  198 

Inclination  of  their  orbits  to  the  ecliptic 133 

Proportion  of  their  respective  magnitudes  285 — 287 

Proportionate  distances  from  the  sun  287 

Motions  of  as  seen  from  the  moon  324,  325 

Are  solid  bodies 348 

Have  annual  revolutions  and  diurnal  rotations  348 

Are  opaque  bodies  351 

Are  connected  by  one  common  principle 352 

Are  diversified  with  mountains  and  valleys  353 

Are  environed  with  atmospheres  355 

The  difference  in  their  densities  a wise  contrivance  359 

Are  peopled  with  intellectual  natures  371 

Secondary , described.  (See  Satellites.')  226,  270 

New  Planets — history  of  their  discovery  124 — 127 

Great  inclination  of  their  orbits 133,  134 

Eccentricity  of  their  orbits 134 

Orbits  cross  each  other 135,  136 

Revolve  at  nearly  the  same  distance  from  the  sun 137 

Revolve  nearly  in  the  same  periods 138 

Are  much  smaller  than  the  other  planets 138 

Conclusions  respecting  their  nature 138 

Supposed  to  be  fragments  of  a larger  planet  139 — 141 

Moral  reflections  suggested  by  their  peculiarities 147 — 149 

Pleiades,  where  situated  10 

How  their  different  positions  indicate  the  annual  motion  of  the  sun  26 

Plurality  of  worlds,  demonstrated  at  large  342,  373 

Pointers  to  the  pole  star  ...  11 

Pole  star,  directions  for  finding  the 12 

Positions  of  Ursa  Major  at  different  seasons  11 — 14 — 21 

Ptolemaic  system  described  32,  33 

Its  futility  and  absurdity  34 

R. 

Revolutions,  physical  and  moral  139,  140 

Rings  of  Saturn,  history  of  their  discovery  169 

Discovery  of  the  division  of  the  ring  170 

Are  not  exactly  circular,  but  eccentric  172 


408 


INDEX. 


Rings  of  Saturn,  their  dimensions  particularly  stated 

Their  rapid  rotation  round  the  planet  

Are  composed  of  solid  materials  

Their  extent  and  superficial  dimensions 

Display  the  power,  wisdom,  and  grandeur  of  the  Deity... 

Their  appearance  from  the  surface  of  Saturn 

Sublime  phenomena  they  present  

Their  aspect  near  the  polar  regions  of  Saturn 

The  shadows  they  cast  on  the  planet,  and  other  phenomena 

Their  appearance  in  the  firmament  of  Saturn 

Produce  great  variety  of  scenery  in  its  sky  

Their  use  particularly  investigated  

Display  the  magnificence  of  the  Creator 

Lead  us  to  conceptions  of  the  structure  of  other  systems 

Serve  as  an  abode  for  myriads  of  inhabitants 

Machinery  requisite  to  illustrate  their  phenomena 

Their  various  aspects  at  different  periods 

Their  appearance  from  1832  till  1847  

Their  diversity  of  shadows  upon  Saturn 

Views  of  the  firmament  from  the — their  variety,  &c. 


PAGE 

...  171 
...  173 
...  173 
174—176 
...  176 
...  176 
...  177 
178 
177 
181 
182 
182 
182 
183 
183 

185 

186 
187 
317 

-339 


180, 

181, 


336- 


S. 


270 

.328,  334,  339 

358 

257 

258 

259 

261,  262 

262 

..262 

331 
266 
268 
336 


...328, 


Satellites,  their  general  laws  and  properties  ...  . 

Peculiar  grandeur  of  their  firmaments  

The  important  purposes  for  which  they  serve... 

Satellites  of  Jupiter,  history  of  their  discovery 

Their  magnitudes  and  revolutions  . 

Their  phases,  eclipses,  and  other  phenomena  ...  . 

Their  apparent  size  in  the  heavens  of  Jupiter  ... 

Their  use  in  finding  the  longitude  

How  their  eclipses  determine  the  motion  of  light  . 

Scenery  of  the  heavens  as  viewed  from  the  ...  . 

Satellites  of  Saturn,  history  of  their  discovery 

Their  magnitude,  motions,  and  appearances  in  the  heavens 

Celestial  scenery  in  their  respective  firmaments  ...331, 

Satellites  of  Uranus,  their  discovery,  revolutions,  and  remark- 
able peculiarities  269 

Their  appearance  in  the  firmament  of  the  planet  319 

Saturn,  circumference  of  its  orbit,  and  the  time  a steam-car- 
riage would  take  in  moving  round  it 163 

Its  period  of  rotation  and  revolution 164 

Proportion  of  light  on  its  surface  164 

Discoveries  on,  by  the  telescope  165 

Its  belts,  proportion  of  polar  and  equatorial  diameter,  &c 166 

Magnitude  and  capacity  for  population  166 

Remarks  in  reference  to  its  density  ...  167 

Erroneous  statements  on  this  point  examined 167 

Eccentricity  of  its  orbit  and  apparent  diameter  169 

Its  rings,  their  dimensions,  appearance  in  its  firmament, 

and  other  phenomena 169,  188 

See  Rings  of  Saturn. 

Other  phenomena  in  this  planet  ...  , ...  318 


INDEX. 


409 


Saturn,  diversified  shadows  of  its  rings... 

Its  celestial  scenery  

Its  satellites.  (See  Satellites .) 

Scenery  of  the  Heavens,  as  viewed  from  the  planets, 

General  remarks  respecting  

From  the  planet  Mercury 

From  Mars 

As  viewed  from  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas 

As  viewed  from  Jupiter  

From  Saturn  

From  Uranus  

From  the  Moon 

Particular  remarks  respecting  celestial  scenery 

An  argument  for  a plurality  of  worlds  

Scenes  in  the  Moon  

Seasons,  their  cause  particularly  illustrated 

Machinery  for  illustrating  the 

Are  different  from  their  original  constitution  ... 

How  they  may  be  meliorated  

Why  the  greatest  heats  are  felt  in  summer 

Reflections  on  the  

Shadows,  laws  of,  illustrated  

Signs  of  the  Zodiac  

Starry  Heavens,  their  sublimity  and  magnificence... 

Stars,  apparent  motions  of,  in  different  latitudes  ... 

How  their  apparent  motion  may  be  perceived 

Their  apparent  annual  motions 

How  their  annual  motions  are  discovered 

Why  invisible  by  day 

How  they  may  be  seen  in  daylight  ... 

Their  utility  to  man  

Present  the  same  view  from  the  planets  as  from  the  earth 

Summer,  circumstances  which  augment  its  heat  

Sun,  necessity  of  its  being  near  the  centre  of  the  system 

Gravity  of  bodies  on  its  surface 

Its  apparent  diameter  as  seen  from  Uranus  

Its  apparent  diurnal  motion  in  N.  latitudes  

Its  apparent  diurnal  motion  in  S.  latitudes  

Its  annual  motion,  how  perceived  

Its  distance  illustrated 

Its  bulk  and  various  dimensions  particularly  described. 

Reflections  suggested  by  its  magnitude  

Its  rotation,  how  determined  

Its  spots,  their  diversified  phenomena  

Immense  magnitude  of  some  of  its  spots 

Various  views  of  its  darker  spots  

Numerous  changes  to  which  its  spots  are  subject 

Progress  of  the  spots  across  its  disk 

Bright  spots  termed  ridges,  &e.,  described 
Absurd  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  sun  ... 

Error  into  which  we  are  apt  to  fall  as  to  its  constructio 
Probable  deductions  in  regard  to  its  physical  structure 


PAGE 

317 

316 

...265—268 

308 

...308,  309 

310 

311 

313 

314 

316 

318 

...321—327 

340 

...364—366 

245 

...100—106 

105 

106 

107 

104 

106 

294 

63 

...  18—27 

...  16,  17 

17 

24 

...  25,  26 

26 

26 

27 

309 

104 

40 

168 

194 

199 

201 

202 

202 

203 

204 

205 

206 

207 

208 

209 

210 

210 

211 

211 

...212—214 


410 


INDEX. 


Sun,  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  opinion  as  to  its  constitution  

Extensive  and  amazing  processes  going  on  in  the 

What  scenes  might  probably  be  seen  upon  this  orb 

Is  a kind  of  universe  in  itself  

Difficulty  in  conceiving  its  magnitude  and  grandeur  ... 
Comparison  of  the  extent  of  its  surface  with  the  view 

from  Mount  Etna  

Displays  the  energies  and  grandeur  of  the  Deity  

Whether  it  be  adapted  for  the  support  of  inhabitants  ... 

Its  benign  agencies  in  reference  to  our  globe 

Whether  its  spots  affect  the  weather 

Whether  it  have  a progressive  motion  in  space  

Its  magnitude  and  influence  illustrate  the  power  of  God 

Popular  mode  of  inferring  its  distance  and  size  

Its  eclipses,  their  phenomena  in  the  Moon 

System,  Ptolemaic,  particularly  described  

Copernican,  its  arrangement  

Its  truth  demonstrated  at  large 


PAGE 

213 

...215,  216 
...215—216 

217 

217 

218 

218 

...219,  222 

220 

222 

223 

274 

...292—295 

325 

...  32—34 

37 

...  41—48 


T. 


Telescopes,  Earl  of  Rosse’s  large  reflecting 

Temperature  of  Mercury 

Uranus 

Venus  

Triangles,  properties  of,  explained  

Trigonometrical  definitions  

Trigonometry,  its  utility  

U. 


...  390 
...  56 

194—196 
...  88 
...  298 
...  297 
...  305 


Uranus,  history  of  its  discovery  188 

Positions  in  which  it  had  previously  been  seen  189 

Names  by  which  it  has  been  distinguished  190 

Its  distance  and  period  ...  191 

Time  in  which  a steam-carriage  would  move  round  its  orbit  ...  191 

Its  magnitude  and  extent  of  surface „ 192 

Its  proportion  of  solar  light  192 

How  beings  like  man  would  see  as  distinctly  on  this  planet 

as  on  the  earth  193 

Probable  construction  of  the  eyes  of  its  inhabitants  193 

Temperature  of,  various  remarks  connected  with  this  topic...  194 — 196 

Its  density,  eccentricity,  and  inclination  of  orbit  196 

Scenery  of  its  firmament  318 

Comets  may  be  long  visible  in  its  sky  319 

Phenomena  of  its  satellites 320 

Its  quantity  of  light  greater  than,is  generally  supposed 320 

Parallax  of  the  fixed  stars  may  be  determined  from  319 


V. 

Venus,  its  conjunctions  illustrated 

Its  elongation,  &c 

Nearer  the  earth  at  one  time  than  another 
Is  the  most  splendid  of  the  nocturnal  orbs 


42—44 
...  44 

...  44 

...  60 


INDEX. 


41 L 


Venus,  particular  description  of  its  motions  ... 

Its  phases  and  other  phenomena  illustrated 
Experiment  to  illustrate,  from  its  phases,  the  truth  of  th 

solar  system 

Visibility  at  its  superior  conjunction 

Assertions  of  astronomers  on  this  point 

The  Author’s  observations  on,  in  the  day-time 
Conclusions  from  observations  on,  and  their  practical 
Mode  of  detecting  at  its  superior  conjunction. 

Discoveries  on,  by  the  telescope  

Cassini  observations  on  

Bianchini’s  observations  on  ... 

Dispute  respecting  the  period  of  its  rotation 

Mountains  on,  and  their  elevations 

Its  atmosphere  

Day  observations  on 

View  of  its  surface  as  seen  in  the  day-time 

Supposed  satellite  of 

Cassini’s  and  Short’s  observations  on  its  satellite 
Montaigne’s  observations  on  the  satellite,  illustrated  by 
General  remarks  in  reference  to  its  supposed  satellite 
Transits  of,  and  how  the  sun’s  parallax  is  found 
Table  of  its  transits  for  the  next  400  years 
Its  magnitudes,  scenery,  and  extent  of  surface 

Its  temperature  and  quantity  of  light  

Rate  of  motion,  period  of  greatest  brightness  ... 

Its  density,  eccentricity  of  orbit,  &c 

Its  appearance  from  the  Moon 

Its  celestial  scenery  

Vesta,  hypothesis  which  led  to  its  discovery 

Its  distance,  period,  magnitude,  atmosphere  ... 

Its  celestial  scenery  

Vision,  laws  of,  the  same  in  other  planets  as  on  the  earth 
Volcanoes,  whether  they  exist  in  the  Moon  ... 

General  remarks  respecting  


utility 


PAGE 

...  64 

64—68 


..  67 

..  68 
..  68 
..  69 

70,  71 
..  72 

..  73 

..  73 

. 75 

75,  76 

77 

78 
70 

79 

80 
0,  81 

82 
82 
84 
86 
86 

87 

88 
. 89 
. 325 
. 311 
. 126 
. 131 
. 313 
. 309 
. 246 
. 248 


W. 


Water  on  the  surface  of  Mars  120 

Weather,  whether  influenced  by  the  solar  spots  222 

Wilson,  Dr.,  his  observations  on  the  solar  spots  213 

Wisdom  of  the  Deity  would  be  impeached  were  the  earth  sup- 
posed to  be  immovable  23 — 49 

In  the  diurnal  rotations  of  the  planets  276 

In  the  permanency  of  their  axes  276 

In  proportionating  their  distances,  &c 276 

In  the  construction  of  Saturn’s  rings 176,  277 

In  the  densities  and  figures  of  the  planets  278 

In  the  adjustment  of  the  projectile  velocity  to  the  attractive 

power  ...  279 

Proportionate  means  to  ends,  and  is  displayed  in  other  worlds 

as  well  as  on  earth  359,  362 

Worlds,  vast  extent  of  the  solar  343 


412 


INDEX. 


Worlds,  a plurality  of,  proved  and  illustrated  

Argument  first  

Argument  second  

Argument  third 

Application  of  arguments 

Argument  fourth.. 

Argument  fifth  

Summary  of  arguments  for  

An  important  and  interesting  subject  of  investigation  ... 

Y. 

Young,  the  innate  curiosity  of 

Improper  modes  of  instructing  them 

Z. 

Zodiac,  signs  of  the,  their  names  and  divisions  

Zodiacal  light,  its  appearance  described 


PAGE 

...342—372 

...342—346 

...346—353 

...353—359 

...359—364 

...364—366 

...366—373 

373 

374 


8 

9 


...  63 

...  223 


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